
Class. -._- 



International ^bxtration Btxm 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM T. HARKIS, A.M., LL.D. 



Volume XIX. 



ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY. 

Contributions by JOSEPH BALDWIN, A. M., LL. D. 



Volume I. 

Art of 

School 

Management. 

KiRKSVILLE ; 

Missouri State 
Normal School. 



I. — Educational Instrumentalities. 
II. — School Organization — Ungraded Schools. 
III. — School Government. 
IV. — Class Management. 
V. — Courses of Study and Programmes. 
VI. — Study, Marking, Examinations. 
VII. — Management of Graded Schools. 
VIII.— Physical Education and School Hygiene. 



Volume II. 
Elementary 
Psychology. 
(Volume VI., 
J7it Ed. Ser.) 

huntsvillk ; 

Texas State 

NormalSchool. 

Volume III. 
Psychology 
applied to 
the Art 
OF Teaching. 
(Vol. XIX., 
Int. Ed. Ser.) 

Austin ; 

University op 

Texas. 



I. — Attention, Instinct, Sensation. 
II. — The Perceptive Powers. 
III. — The Representative Powers, 
IV.— The Thought-Powers, 
v.— The Emotions. 
VI.— The Will-Powers. 
VII. — Physiological Psychology. 



I. — Education of the Perceptive Powers. 

II. — Education of the Representative Powers. 
III. — Education of the Thought- Powers. 
IV. — Education of the Emotions. 

v.— Education of the Will-Powers. 
VI.— The Art of Teaching. 
VII.— The Teacher. 



D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

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Vbl. VL-ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. By 

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New York: D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, i, 3, & 5 Bond Street. 



INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 



PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED 

TO THE 

ART OF TEACHING 



/ 



BY 

JOSEPH BALDWIN, A. M., LL. D. 

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS ; AUTHOR OF " ART OF SCHOOL 
MANAGEMENT" AND "ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY" 



^^^,^V OF COA/Gff^ 

892 ^^ ^ 







NEW YORK 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1892 






Copyright, 1892, 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 



EDITOE^S PEEFAOE. 



In the preface to Prof. Baldwin's Elementary Psy- 
chology and Education (YoL YI of this Education 
Series) I have dwelt upon the broad distinction that 
exists between external observation and internal ob- 
servation, or between sense-perception and introspec- 
tion. External observation sees things and records 
their movements, changes, and inorganic properties. 
Introspection perceives what goes on in the mind — 
namely, feelings, thoughts, and volitions. There is a 
wide difference between these two classes of objects. 
Outside things are all related to environments, and more 
or less dependent on them The doctrine of relativity 
holds supremely among them ; each is what it is only 
through the relation it bears to something else ; on the 
contrary, the objects of introspection pertain to inde- 
pendent being, to that which controls and determines 
itself, to that which is not only an object but also at the 
same time a subject. 

Hence all objects of introspection are double — they 
are both objects and subjects — they are phenomenal 
acts or manifestations, belonging to a self — and both 
are presented in consciousness or introspection. I per- 
ceive my feelings, but not isolately or abstractly — I 



Vi APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

do not perceive feelings detached from a self or subject 
that feels, but in every case I perceive a self that is in 
the act or state of feeling. This is an essential distinc- 
tion to be borne in mind. I perceive not isolated and 
detached feelings, ideas, or volitions, but the feelings as 
I — the self — feel them ; the ideas as I think them ; the 
volitions as I will them. 

The feelings, ideas, and volitions are phenomenal or 
dependent beings existing in and through a self which 
is their substance ; but the self is known to be a nou- 
menon, an independent being — a being that can origi- 
nate activity in itself and others ; it is a free being and 
a moral personality. 

We see by this that the act of introspection is worthy 
of the most careful study, because of the high charac- 
ter of its object. But the most imj)ortant thing to no- 
tice here is that external perception has to be re-en- 
forced by introspection in order to enable it to perceive 
organic beings and their phenomena. This is a point 
which has escaped the attention of many of the stu- 
dents of physiological psychology. They speak of ob- 
jective methods of studying the mind, and take fre- 
quent ojDportunity to disparage introspection as an old 
and discarded method of studying the mind. This all 
comes from ignorance of the history of psychology, 
and especially from lack of familiarity with the works 
of the great thinkers in this field. If one has mastered 
Plato's Bepiiblic^ Sophist, Parmenides, The Laws (espe- 
cially the tenth book), ThecBtetiis, and Timmus^ he will 
never speak disparagingly of the results of inner expe- 
rience. If one has (not a mere grammatical or philo- 
logical, but) a scholarly acquaintance with Aristotle's 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. vii 

book on the soul,* lie will revere introspection as tlie 
eye of the soul itself, which sees not only the divine 
objects of knowledge, but also interprets for us the 
vast bulk of our external experience. Such, too, will 
be his reverence for introspection if he has studied 
those giants of modern philosophy, Kant, Fichte, Scliell- 
ing, and Hegel. It w^as well said of these men by a 
writer in The Dial fifty years ago : " These four phi- 
losophers would have been conspicuous in any age, and 
will hereafter, we think, be named w4th Plato, Aris- 
totle, Bacon, Descartes, and Leibnitz, among the great 
thinkers of the world. Silently these lights arose and 
went up the sky without noise, to take their place 
among the fixed stars of genius and shine wdth them 
— names that will not fade out of heaven until some 
ages shall have passed away. These men w^ere think- 
ers all — deej), mighty thinkers. . . . They sat on the 
brink of the well of Truth and continued to draw 
for themselves and the w^orld. Take Kant alone, 
and in the whole compass of thought we scarce know 
his superior. From Aristotle to Leibnitz Ave do not 
find his equal. No, nor since Leibnitz. I^^eed we say 
it ? Was there not many a Lord Bacon in Immanuel 
Kant?" 

But the beginner in mental science is excusable if 
he does not admit the claims of introspection ; for it is 
a higher faculty which grows slowly with painstaking 
culture — of great worth, but costing hard mental work. 
Although the weakest mind possesses introspection in 
the fact that it is conscious of itself, it does not yet 

* Let him use the splendid text-book of Edwin Wallace, " Aristotle's 
Psychology in Greek and English." 



viii APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

control it as an instrument of scientific discovery. It 
must discipline itself in order to acquire this power. 

The first step in this difficult road is to make an in- 
ventory of the three great departments of mental phe- 
nomena, and the present volume will aiford the student 
timely aid in this work. It will help the teacher in 
training his ]3upils into the second order of observation 
— the observation of noumena or self-activities. 

As I have above intimated, the first order of obser- 
vation — sense-perception — does not suffice to the per- 
ception of organic beings ; it can perceive only me- 
chanical things and movements. The phenomena of 
plant life, animal life, and human life involve self -ac- 
tivity, and they must be recognized and interpreted 
through our consciousness of our inner self, its desires 
and instincts, its ideas and volitions. 

We apperceive — to use the new technical word for 
this act of recognition and interpretation of what is 
perceived by what is known before — we apperceive 
plants and animals by referring their actions and mani- 
festations to inward selves analogous to our owm. 

By no possibility can we perceive through external 
observation a feeling, a thought, or a volition in any 
object before us in time and space. The anatomy of 
the brain does not furnish anything visible or tangible 
that resembles a thought any more than does a wig- 
block. There is no known movement in the brain 
which indicates that any process of feeling or thought 
or will is going on. By introspection alone we see mind 
directly, and by its aid we conduct observations on what- 
ever in nature manifests life and mind. 

W. T. Harris. 

Washington, D. C, February 1, 1892. 



AUTHOE'S PREFACE. 



The hope of producing a book helpful to the great 
brotherhood of teachers inspired this volume. During 
four decades these chapters have been given as lessons 
to many classes of teachers. The practical results in a 
thousand schools have been observed with intense in- 
terest. From year to year, in the light of experience 
and study and criticism, these lessons have been re- 
modeled. They are now submitted in the form which 
seems to the author best calculated to aid teachers in 
preparing themselves for their great work. 

Teacher, if you are far advanced, this book is not 
meant for you. You feast on a profounder profes- 
sional literature. But you are earnestly asked to judge 
this work as a contribution to elementary pedagogy. 
Each paragraph was written to help the teachers of our 
ungraded country schools as well as the teachers of our 
graded schools. These, with their schools, were con- 
stantly before the mind of the writer. Chapters were 
condensed into pages, and pages into paragraphs, that 
overworked teachers might have the most helpful things 
in the briefest, space. The aim of every page is to stimu- 
late the teachers of our elementary schools to make the 
most of themselves, and do most for their pupils. 



X AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

The history of the growth of these chapters, it is thought, will 
best explain their contents. During my senior year in college I 
had taken the usual course in mental and moral science, and had 
written essays on education ; but when I assumed the position of 
a teacher of teachers I began to realize my profound ignorance. 
Even now I can almost feel the darkness through which I tried to 
grope my way. I had studied theories, but spirit and soul and 
mental culture, and my own mental economy, were to me inscrutable 
conundrums. In my world, teachers' institutes, educational journals, 
and works on pedagogy, were not yet even thought of. For a weary 
decade I literally groped my way. 

First Step. — Aided by a distinguished professor in a medical col- 
lege, I studied the brain and its connections from the standpoint of 
the soul. As fast as I learned these lessons I gave them to my 
classes of teachers. The " laboratory " method had not then been 
thought of, but through all these years I have continued these 
studies, and have made these lessons in psychological physiology 
the basis of my work in pedagogy. 

Second Step. — States of consciousness, mental phenomena, men- 
tal faculties, and similar expressions, were to me perplexing mys- 
teries. Happily, the expedient of organizing my classes into ex- 
ploring parties now occurred to me.* I became the leader of 
expeditions to explore the self- world. How do we gain sense-ideas ? 
This was the topic. We became children again, and had many 
object-lessons, but we critically observed our acts of gaining ideas 
through each of the senses. We analyzed many of our own acts of 
sense-perceiving. It became clear to us that self makes his sense- 
ideas out of his sensations. The capability of self to gain sense- 
ideas was termed sense-perception. Thus, building on our own ex- 
periences and insight, we explored as best we could the self -world. 
We unscrupulously appropriated the discoveries of other explorers, 
such as Aristotle, Kant, Hamilton, and Herbart. These lessons grew 
year by year, and are now the chapters of the Elementary Psychology. 

Third iS/ep.— Philosophy of education, methods of culture, laws 
of mental growth, educational principles, and such expressions 
appeared to me as intangible abstractions. I was benighted and 

* Whatever success I have had as a teacher I owe very largely to this 
plan of work, I have all along taken my students into partnership, and we 
have together investigated all subjects considered. 



HISTORY OF THE GROWTH OF THESE CHAPTERS, xi 

felt helpless. But ray classes waited. They were ready and anxious 
to enter upon new voyages of discovery. The great unknown world 
of human education was before us. Hoiv do we educate sense-per- 
ception ? This was the momentous question. We observed that 
infants slowly gained imperfect sense-ideas, while youths quickly 
gained perfect sense-notions. It became clear to us that education 
made the difference between the feeble perceiving of the infant and 
the vigorous perceiving of the youth, It also became evident that 
this growth, this development, this increase of power, came of well- 
directed effort in gaining sense-ideas. We had discovered the law 
of effort. The discovery of other laws, and of means and methods 
of promoting sense-perception growth, followed. Thus we advanced 
step by step until we had investigated in our imperfect way the 
education of the intellectual powers, the emotions, and the will. 
These chapters were those lessons. Even in their present form they 
will doubtless be recognized by several thousand teachers. 

Fourth Step. — The great problem, " the mental economy,'' re- 
mained a dark mystery. I grew weary of pondering the solutions of 
writers who looked at the facts through their theories. I could not 
understand the organic soul of the phrenologist ; or the triangular 
soul of writers who represented intellect, sensibility, and will as the 
three sides of the one energy ; or the composite sotd of Froebel, who 
taught that the infant soul is composed of germ facidties which edu- 
cation develops ; or the facidty-less soul of Herbart, who had created 
a new psychology to fit his pedagogy. He thought of the infant soul 
as a simple essence, and of the faculties as acquired facilities. He 
taught that "the power of self-determination, like the powers of 
perception and memory and reason, is acquired." Much less could I 
understand Herbert Spencer's material soul. I organized my ad- 
vanced classes to grapple with this problem of the ages. What 
does the mental economy mean to you ? This was now the absorbing 
question. To assist us in our efforts to grasp the mental economy 
as a whole, we constructed the psychological pyramid and the 
psychological tree, and the maps of mental grovrth. Our brethren 
ridiculed, but we found these crude devices materially helpful. 
We had learned to think of a self as having native energies to do 
acts different in kind, and we had learned to think of these activi- 
ties as merely the capabilities of the self. But our syntheses now 
led us to study the relations of these powers. We saw through a 
glass darkly, but years lengthened into decades before we gained 



xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

the deeper insight that each capability of self supplements all his 
other capabilities, and that education comes of co-ordinated and 
concentrated effort. These simple, far-reaching truths came to us 
like revelations. We could now understand that while the mental 
powers are elemental, mental acts are wonderfully complex. We 
could now better understand Herbart's apperception, and Lewes's 
assimilation. In the light of these and similar truths we began over 
again our lessons in psychology and education, and the art of teach- 
ing. All possible helps were sought. As each improved telescope 
compels the astronomer to revise his science of the heavens, so this 
deeper insight compelled us to revise our work. From the history 
of education, and from the methods of the world's great educators, 
we gleaned invaluable lessons. We joyously seized upon truth wher- 
ever found. I would gladly credit each discoverer, but this is now 
impossible. I can only express my deepest gratitude to educators 
and to the members of my classes. Everything gained was assimi- 
lated into these lessons, which have grown into the Applied Psy- 
chology and the Art of Teaching. 

Sister, brother, you are a teacher^ or you intend to 
be one. You will now be my class. Together we will 
venture anew on these voyages of discovery. Psychol- 
ogy and education are as old as the race and as young 
as the latest human consciousness. Through a knowl- 
edge of self, to a knowledge of others, is the divine 
law. Each new teacher must create a new psychology 
and a new education. You are entitled to the thought 
and experience of the race, but at every step you must 
build on your own experience and your own insight. « 
I will be happy to lead and to suggest, but that success 
may attend our efforts you must discern everything, feel 
everything, do everything. This is no easy task. It 
will require your best efforts, but you will be rewarded 
by becoming able to lead others. 

Joseph Baldwin. 
University of Texas, 

Austin, Texas, March, 1892. 



PART I. 
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS, 



CHAPTER I.— Psychology, Applied Psychology, Education, 
Teaching. 
II. — The Perceptive Powers and Perceptiye 

Knowing. 
III. —Education of Sense-Perception— Education 

of Sense-Intuition. 
lY. —Education op Self-Perception— Education 

of Self-Intuition. 
y. — Education of Necessary-Perception— Educa- 
tion OF Necessary-Intuition. 
VI. — Culture of the Perceptive-Powers. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 

CHAPTER ^^ 

I.— Psychology, Applied Psychology, Education, Teach- 
ing 

II.— The Perceptive Powers and Perceptive Knowing . 

III. — Education of Sense-Perception 

IV. — Education of Self-Perception * 

V. — Education of Necessary-Perception . . . . ' 
VI. — Culture of the Perceptive Powers . . . . - 

PAET II. 

EDUCATION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE 
POWERS 

VII. — The Representative Powers and Representative 

Knowing 

VIII. — Education of Memory 1( 

IX. — Educational Treatment of Phantasy ... 1? 

X. — Education of Imagination 12 

XI. — Culture of the Representative Powers. . . 14 

PART III. 

EDUCATION OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS 

Xll. — The Thought-Powers and Thought-Knowing . .155 
XIII. — Education of Conception 171 



xiv CONTENTS. 

Ihapter page 

I XIV.— Education of Judgment 187 

' XV.— Education of Reason 200 

XVI.— Culture of the Thought-Powers . . . 213 

PART IV. 
EDUCATION OF THE EMOTIONS. 

XVII.— The Ejiotions 221 

XVII I.— Education of the Self-Emotions .... 228 

XIX. — Education of the Social Emotions . . . 240 

XX. — Education of the Truth-Emotions . . . 249 

XXI. — Education of the Esthetic Emotions . . . 255 

XXII. — Education op Conscience 264 

PART V. 

EDUCATION OF THE WILL-POWERS. 

XXIII.— The Will-Powers 285 

XXIV. — Education of Attention, or Self-Concentration . 293 

XXV. — Education of Choice, or Self-Determination . 309 

K^XVI. — Education of Action, or Self-Doing . . . 331 

XVII. — Culture of the Will-Powers .... 333 

PART VI. 

THE ART OF TEACHING. 

.VIII. — Laws of Teaching 344 

a!XIX. — Teaching Processes 349 

XXX.— Teaching Periods 354 

XXXI.— Kindergarten and Primary Methods of Teach- 
ing 358 

XXXII. — Intermediate Methods of Teaching . . . 362 

XXXIII. — High-School Methods of Teaching . . . 366 

XXXIV. — College Methods of Teaching .... 371 



n^^. 



PAET FIBST. 

EDUCATION OF TEE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PSYCHOLOGY, APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATION", TEACHING. 

Know Self. — Psychology is the science of self {psycho 
-|- logy = soul + sciexicc). But each self is a type of the 
race and stands for Iiumanity. When one understands 
himself, he is prepared to understand others. The 
teacher must know self in order to understand the child. 
Self-knowledge is not only the shortest way to child- 
knowledge, but it is the only way. This knowledge 
underlies and makes possible the science of education. 

Educate Sel£ — Education is the science of self-develop- 
ment {e, out -{- ducere, to lead). Self -effort made in ac- 
cordance with law educates. Around this central truth 
are grouped the results of the educational thought and 
experience of the race. In the light of the ages the 
teacher must study his own self-growth, that he may 
understand and foster child-growth. This knowledge 
underlies and makes possible the Art of Teaching. 

Guide Self-Effort. — Teaching is the art of promot- 
ing self-growth. Self -effort, under guidance, educates. 
Teaching is the art of stimulating and guiding self- 
effort. In the light of education as a science, the teacher 



4: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

must learn to guide his own efforts, tliat lie may wisely 
guide the efforts of others. 

Manage Sel£ — Management is the art of character- 
building. Ideas pass over into emotions, and emotions 
pass over into actions. The teacher controls child 
ideas and thus controls child emotions and child acts. 
"When wisely managed, the child builds a noble char- 
acter. The teacher must manage himself, that he may 
manage the child. 




ART OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 



ART OF TEACHING 



HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 



PSYCHOLOGY AND APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY 



Lead the Child. — Pedagogy includes the professional 
studies and the training which fit one for an educational 
leader {pais or paida, child -j- agogos, leading). A 
slave in the olden times literally led the boy to school ; 
in our day the teacher leads the child up to a higher 
and better life, and elevates the individual into the ex- 
perience of the race. 

I. Psychology. 

By this is meant the science of self. I find out all I 
can about myself. I perceive myself knowing, feeling, 
willing. I discover my native energies and their laws 
of activity and growth. I systematize this knowledge. 
I give an account of the ways in which self acts. I 
have made a science of self — a psychology. 

1. Sel£ — I know, I feel, I will. I am aware that I 
thus act, and that I am the same I that thus acted last 



PSYCHOLOGY. 5 

week and last year. I am aware that I do these acts 
spontaneously. I determine ; I am free. I am en- 
dowed with the capabilities of self-knowing, self-con- 
sciousness, self-determination, self -activity. I am a self, 
a person. 

2. Self works in a Physical Organism. — My senso- 
rium and motorium give me direct connection with the 
universe. I have my headquarters for life in my cere- 
brum. In some unknown way I think, love, and decide 
in and through my cerebral ganglia and their connec- 
tions. I can not comprehend it ; this knowledge is too 
high for me ; but I know that self is generated with the 
body, lives in it, works through it, and leaves it at 
death. I also know that Self can do his best work when 
his body is in the best condition. 

3. Self has Native Energies called Faculties. — I find 
that I have capabilities to know, feel, and will in dis- 
tinct ways. I learn to call these energies my powers, 
my faculties, my capabilities. Self is endowed with 
energies to do acts different in kind. My faculties are 
simply my capabilities of knowing, feeling, and willing. 
I learn to call my capabilities to know by the group 
name, Intellect, I find that I know in different ways. 



INTELLECT 




I gain some notions at once ; this is immediate or Per- 
ceptive-hnowing. Then I can make present again, in 
old or new forms, my past acquisitions ; this is Rejpre- 



6 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

sentatwe-Tcnoiohig . I can also think inj intuitions into 
higher forms, and gain new truths through the medium 
of known truths ; this is mediate knowing or Thouglit- 
hnowing. I learn to call mj capabilities to know, my 
intellectual powers. Intellect includes Inttdtive-know- 
ing, J^epresentatlve-knowmg, and Thought-knowing. 

Feeling. — I enjoy and suffer. I experience various 
feelings differing in kind. Some feelings are occasioned 
by sensor-excitations caused by organic stimuli ; these 
feelings are organic sensaiions. Some feelings are oc- 
casioned by sensor-excitations caused by external stimuli 
acting through the S23ecial senses; these feelings are 
special sensations. Other feelings are occasioned by 
ideas ; these feelings are einotions. Feeling includes 
organic sensations, special sensations, and emotions. 



FEELING 




"Will. — I make voluntary efforts, and I notice that 
these efforts are distinct in kind. Now I concentrate 
my efforts ; I attend. ISTow I determine in view of 
motives ; I choose. Now I execute my determinations ; 



WILL 




I act. I learn to call my effort-making capabilities my 
Will-powers. Will includes my capabilities to attend, 
choose, and act. 



PSYCnOLOGY. 7 

The native energies of self are termed capabilities, 
powers, faculties. I do acts different in kind ; I per- 
ceive, I admire, I determine. I learn to call my ener- 
gies to do acts different in kind my powers, my facul- 
ties, my capabilities. The name by which I learn to 
designate each of my capabilities indicates its office in 
my mental economy. 

4, Law reigns in the Self-World. — Deeper insight 
satisfies me that self acts spontaneously, but acts in uni- 
form icays. I find that the uniform ways in which 
self acts are the laws of the mental economy. Self is 
subject to mental laws just as matter is subject to physical 
laws. Self vvust attend, in order to know. Self must 
ascend through particulars to generals. Self 7nust recall 
the past through the present. Self must make effort, 
in order to growth. Law reigns in the mind-world. 

5. Self studies Self. — Self is subject {sub, under 
-{-jactus, placed). Self underlies mental phenomena, 
causes them. I gain the idea this rose. The rose is ob- 
ject, but the self that creates the idea is subjeet. Self 
may also be object {ob, before -\- jactus, placed). I 
perceive myself rejoicing. The I that perceives and 
rejoices is subject, but the self that is perceived is object. 
Self studies self ; self is both subject and object. I look 
without and gain a knowledge of plant-life ; I look 
within and gain a knowledge of self. After I accumu- 
late immediate ideas of plant-life, I begin to be able to 
appropriate the experiences of others, and little by little 
I create a science of Botany. So, after I have acquired 
sufficient direct knowledge of self, I begin to be able 
to appropriate the experiences of the race, and I thus 
gradually create a psychology. 



8 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

6. Psycliology is the Science of Self. — Knowledge 
of self is a key to all knowledge. It opens to ns the 
book of nature, the book of human nature, and the 
book of Divine nature. One ignorant of self gropes in 
the dark. A teacher who knows self builds on the 
rock, but one ignorant of self builds on the sand. The 
wise physician studies psychology side by side with 
physiology. The wise minister studies theology in the 
light of psychology. Everywhere self-knowledge is 
most valuable, but to the teacher it is the sine qua non. 

Y. Youth is the Golden Time to study Self. — The child 
and the boy and the girl are busy exploring the great 
world around them. It is well. But the youth begins to 
look within, and longs to explore the self -world. Before 
this, self -lessons have been incidental, but now is the 
golden time for systematic self -lessons. The study of 
psychology, until recently, was limited to college seniors 
and specialists. But educators begin to realize that youth 
is the time for elementary mind studies, and that intro- 
spection and observation are equally essential. Elemen- 
tary psycliology, rightly presented, is found to be as in- 
teresting to young people as physiology or botany. Our 
youth are now trained to look within as well as without, 
and to explore the mind-world as well as the matter- 
world. It is well. The third year in the high school, the 
second year in the Normal school, and the second year 
in the college, are doubtless fitting periods for the study 
of elementary psychology. The foundation is now laid 
in self -experience for profounder psychological study. 

8. I study Self directly and indirectly. — I, self, mind, 
soul, are easy and safe terms. At first we must care- 
fully exclude all confusing and misleading expressions 



APPLIED rSYCnOLOGY. 9 

and theories. As the cliild studies material things, 
so the youth studies self. The one takes object-lessons, 
the other subject-lessons. The youth by direct insight 
gains a knowledge of self just as the child by direct 
experience gains a knowledge of things. Here and 
everywhere immediate experience must precede, accom- 
pany, and make possible book-work, letter one actually 
studies self and becomes acquainted with his own mental 
economy, he can re-enforce his own experiences by the 
experiences of others. An easy elementary psychology 
will now help the youth to study himself systematically, 
help him to appropriate the experience of others, help 
him to study self through his physical organism, help 
him to study self through products of mind in art and 
language and literature. But mere book psychology is 
worse even than mere book botany or book chemistry. 
It injures and does not help. 

II. Applied Psychology. 

By this is meant educational psychology. We speak 
of pure and applied mathematics, pure and applied 
logic, pure and applied psychology. It is true we apply 
psychology in theology and medicine and law and gov- 
ernment and literature and art and business ; but when 
we teachers use the expression apj)Ued psychology we 
do not think of its application in these departments, 
but of its application in the science and art of human 
development. 

1. The Facts of Psychology are restated in Terms of 
Education. — In pure psychology w^e study self ; in ap- 
plied psychology we restudy self from the standpoint 
of education, and restate facts of the mind in terms of 



10 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

education and teaching. Practical surveyors, arcliitects, 
and engineers ask, " How can pure mathematics help 
us \ " The answer comes, " In every way when the 
facts are restated in terms of your specialty and in the 
forms of art." The farmer asks, ^'How can botany 
help me ? " The response is, " In many ways when the 
facts of plant-life are restated in terms of agriculture 
and are applied to the art of promoting plant-growth." 
Many j^Tactical teachers ask, "How can psychology 
help us?" The same answer comes, "In every way 
when restated in terms of education and applied to the 
art of promoting mind-growth." 

2. In Applied Psychology we study Periods of 
Growth. — Pure psychology asks, " What am I — the 
developed self ? " Applied psychology asks, " What 
is the child ? what is the boy or girl ? what is tlie youth ? 
what is the young man or woman ? " It furnishes the 
primary teacher a map of childhood ; the intermediate 
teacher a map of boyhood and girlhood ; the high- 
school teacher a map of youth ; and the college pro- 
fessor a map of early manhood. The schoolmaster 
without it gropes in the dark ; but the teacher who is 
familiar with applied psychology works in the light. 

3. Applied Psychology treats of the Growing Self. — 
This is its peculiar province. How does the child be- 
come the man ? Applied psychology answers in par- 
ticulars ; the science of education in generals. Applied 
psychology states the nature of each capability of self 
and its laws of growth, and discusses the means and 
methods of promoting its growth. The teacher learns 
to think of a child as a self endowed with feeble native 
energies, and realizes that it is the work of the educator 



EDUCATION. 11 

to SO guide child effort as to develop these powers. As 
the musician so touches every key as to produce thrill- 
ing music, so the touch of the skillful teacher awakens 
to educational activity each child-capability, producing 
a grand and noble life. 

4. Pure and Applied Ppychology. — We may restate 
in brief these distinctions : Pure Psycholo^ deals with 
a self whose native energies are fully active ; Applied 
Psychology deals with a growing self. Pure psychology 
asks, "What am I, the developed self?" Applied 
l^sychology asks, " What is the child ? what is the boy ? 
what is the youth ? " Pure psychology investigates the 
capabilities of self ; applied psychology investigates the 
growth of these capabilities. Pure psychology ascer- 
tains and states the laws of mental activity and mental 
growth ; applied psychology applies these laws to the 
promotion of human growth. Pure mathematics and 
applied mathematics, pure logic and applied logic, and 
pure psychology and applied psychology are correspond- 
ing expressions. Applied psychology enters incidentally 
into logic and philosophy and theology and law and 
medicine and science, but it enters into the very essence 
of education, and is called educational psychology. We 
do not think of logical psychology or legal psychology, 
but of educational psychology, when we use the expres- 
sion Applied Psychology. 

III. Education. 

Education is the science of human development. 
We cultivate plants, train animals, and educate persons. 
Education makes the difference between the feeble in- 
fant and the strong man. What a change from the 



12 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

infant Newton uttering its first cry, and l^ewton the 
philosoplier trembling with joy as he grasped the prob- 
lem of the heavens ! 

1. Education is Self-Evolution. — The bud develops 
into the rose ; the egg develops into the eagle ; the 
child develops into the man. The process is termed 
evolution. All the native energies possessed by the 
man Newton were in the child ; but the child knew 
and felt and willed feebly, the man mightily. The pro- 
cess of the child-self developing into the man-self is 
called education and is self-evolution. The germ-self 
becomes the ma-n-self. This becoming is growth, devel- 
opment, evolution, education. 

2. Self-Effort educates. — Nothing else does. The 
germ-tree in the acorn spontaneously appropriates the 
elements necessary to its growth and so develops into 
a great oak. The child-self spontaneously makes the 
efforts necessary to its growth and so develops into a 
powerful man. The child makes eif orts to remember ; 
somehow, its memory becomes more and more vigor- 
ous. The youth thinks ; somehow, his capabilities to 
think become more and more powerful. Self-effort 
develops power — educates. 

3. Lawful Effort educates. — Well-directed effort de- 
velops capability. The uniform ways in which self 
must act in order to growth are educational laws. 
Self-effort, conforming to the laws of growth, educates. 
Applied psychology states the laws of self -growth 
concretely^ as, "Well-directed effort in gaining sense- 
knowledge educates sense-perception." The science 
of education states the laws of self -growth in general 
terms, as, " Well-directed effort develops faculty." 



EDUCATION. 13 

4. The Science of Education formulates the Educa- 
tional Thought and Experience of the Eace. — Develop- 
ment through effort is the central idea. Around this 
are grouped the facts of mind, the laws of growth, the 
means of education, the methods of promoting growth, 
and helpful devices and suggestions. 

We study the story of education and learn from the 
masters. From Moses and Jesus we learn our best les- 
sons. We learn valuable lessons from Socrates and 
Plato and Aristotle. Athens still teaches us in sesthetic 
culture. Eome still gives us lessons in heroism and law 
and government. We gain much from the thought and 
experience of great German teachers, great British teach- 
ers, great French teachers, great American teachers. 

We study sociology, and history, and literature, and 
gain invaluable lessons, for we must educate the child 
to act well his part in the drama of life. The science 
of education includes all of man and all of life. Edu- 
cation is complete development for complete living. 
This is the sciefice of tnanhood. 

5. Applied Psychology and Education. — In its school 
sense, education as a science is limited to the develop- 
ment of the capabilities of self. ApjDlied psychology 
quarries materials for the educational temple. Each 
capability of self is studied as to its nature, its relations, 
its stages of growth, its means of growth, its laws of 
growth, and as to methods of promoting its growth. 
Education generalizes and systematizes these concrete 
facts. From other sources much is gained ; but applied 
psychology enters into the very warp and woof of edu- 
cation. It underlies and makes possible the science of 
education and the art of teaching. To one practically 



14: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

ignorant of applied psychology, education as a science is 
unmeaning. Here and everywliere, we must struggle 
up to generals through particulars, raising ourselves 
round by round. 

TV. Art of Teaching. 

Teaching is the art of promoting human growth. 
The efficient teacher understands himself, understands 
the growing pupil, and understands the subject taught. 
He completely adapts matter and method, and leads 
learners to put forth their best efforts in the best ways. 
To him the physical and mental and moral economy of 
the child is an open book. He sees in each pupil a 
self -determining person, free but leadable. As teacher 
he largely controls the ideas of his pupils ; but ideas 
occasion choices, and choices pass over into actions. 
Through ideas he awakens in his pupils all ennobling 
emotions and high resolves, and thus leads them up to a 
higher and better life. This is the teaching that makes 
for character. This is the art of manhood. 

1. Applied Psychology is a Priceless Boon to the 
•Teacher. — The teacher works in the light. He studies 
each mental power and discovers its nature and rela- 
tions, its periods of growth, its laws of growth, its 
means of growth, and methods of promoting its growth. 
!Now he forms a map of childhood, a map of youth, 
a map of manhood. He beholds in one view the 
entire mental economy of the child, of the boy, of the 
youtli, of the man. Here he discovers three funda- 
mental principles : (1.) All the mental powers supple- 
ment and re-enforce each other, so that educating one 
power incidentally educates in some degree all the pow- 



ART OF TEACHING. 15 

ers. (2.) Each capability is susceptihle of and reqioires 
distinct and specific culture. As eacli stroke of the 
artist's brush tends to perfect the painting, so each les- 
son has its specific culture value. Teaching educates. 
(3.) The faculties develop in a defimite order. Educa- 
tional maps attempt to show the order, and the teacher 
finds that a method of teaching is simply a systematic, 
persistent, efiicient plan of work adapted to a growing 
mind. 

2. Teaching builds on Science. — Education as a sci- 
ence states in general terms the laws of human develop- 
ment ; teaching restates these laws in specific forms and 
in the terms of art. Education determines w^hat meth- 
ods must be ; teaching applies these methods in the 
actual work of promoting growth. Education is ab- 
stract and deals with generals ; teaching is concrete and 
deals with particulars and with individuals. Education 
gives the theory of human grow^th ; teaching embodies 
the theory in practice. Education is a science ; teach- 
ing is an art. 

3. Teaching is educating. — Your head may be full 
of theories, but somehow when you stand before your 
class you never think of theories. You, like all artists 
and masters, intuitively discern the fitness of things. 

^ Deeply interested yourself, you make the lesson intense- 
ly interesting to your pupils. You remove unnecessary 
difficulties ; you exorcise the demon of confusing de- 
tails and lead your pupils to learn only what is essential. 
You may not be able to tell how, but in some way you 
get your pupils to put forth their full energies; and 

« this is the art that educates. 

4. But Teaching must build on the Eock. — The 



16 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

great musician does not tliink of theory when perform- 
ing; but without the mastery of theory the perform- 
ance would be impossible. "Wellington at Waterloo did 
not think of military science ; but without a mastery 
of military science the victory could not have been 
achieved. "Yes," said one of the masters, "I paint 
under inspiration, but in the mean time I study hard 
that I may be able to paint when the inspiration comes." 
The genuine teacher studies profoundly the hest things. 
He feels at home in educational psychology and the 
science of education and the methods of the masters. 
When teaching he does not need to think of theories. 
He is an artist and teaches under inspiration ; but he 
does not forget that the science of education makes 
the art of teaching possible. 

6. Teaching is the Noblest Art. — We feel the spell 
of drawing and painting and sculpture and architecture, 
for these arts articulate the language of material nature. 
We are thrilled by eloquence and poetry and song, for 
these arts express the universal throbbings of the human 
heart; but we are exalted by teaching, for this is the 
art of manhood. We are pupils ; Plato is our teacher, 
Arnold is our teacher, Agassiz is our teacher, Horace 
Mann is our teacher, Christ is our teacher. The in- 
spiration of a great teacher thrills through our entire 
being. Our intellects become penetrating, broad, com- 
manding ; our hearts glow with all lovely and sublime 
emotions and exalting impulses ; our wills become high 
resolves and noble acts. This is the art of teaching. 



PERCEPTIVE POWERS AND PERCEPTIVE KNOWING. 17 

CHAPTEE II. 

THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 

These powers are oui capabilities to know imme- 
diately. They are called our intuitive powers, because 
they are our capabilities to see immediately into things. 
Tti, into + tueri^ see.) They are also called our percep- 
tive powers, our powers of direct insight. {Per, by + 
capere, to gain.) With some to perceive means only to 
gain ideas by the senses; but it is more common to 
make it include all intuitive knowing. I know at once 
the rose as sweet-smelling. By direct insight I also 
know myself as feeling glad. I likewise know imme- 
diately that these parts are equal to this whole. Tliis is 
direct knowing, intuitive knowing, perceptive knowing, 
immediate knowing. Our capabilities to gain ideas 
immediately are our intuitive powers, our perceptive 
powers, our presentative powers, our acquisitive powers. 




Self looks directly into the three worlds — the matter 
world, the mind world, and the world of 7iecessary 
realities. Our native energies to gain elementary no- 
tions of material things, of self, and of necessary reali- 
ties, are our intuitive powers, our perceptive powers. 

Endowed with intuition, self looks directly into these 
three worlds. As sense-intuition, self perceives the 

2 



18 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

sense-world; as self-intuition, self perceives the self- 
world; as necessary-intuition, self perceives the world 
of necessary realities. This is immediate knowing, per- 
ceptive knowing, intuitive knowing. 

I. Sensorium and Motorium."^ 
Self works in and through a physical organism. 
All soul activity goes on in connection with this organ- 
ism. It is a great thing in education to make this or- 
ganism an ally and not an enemy. 

The teacher must understand the body that he may understand 
the mind. Physical improvement makes mental improvement pos- 
sible. You, ay a physiologist, have studied the body simply as an 
animal organism. As a psychologist, you must restudy the body 
from the standpoint of self. You will wisely ignore curious conun- 
drums and misleading theories, and simply ask "What are the 
facts?" " What is the plan of the human body?" "How may it 
be made the fittest instrument of self?" "How does self receive 
and send messages through the body?" 

I. Cerebrum. — Every cell in the animal body is a 
standing miracle. Think what it has to do ! In addi- 
tion to its specific functions it must grow and produce 
other cells like itself. The lowest animal consists of a 
single cell ; but a human brain, it is estimated, contains 
more than a billion nerve-cells. \ These are organized 
into groups called ganglia. A ganglion is a group of 
nerve-cells with nerve connections. The structure and 
workings of ganglia and their connections may be illus- 
trated by a telegraphic system. Of all physical mech- 

* This chapter is an attempt to present the essential facts of the sensor 
and motor mechanisms, and of perceptive knowing. You are recommended 
to read also Chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII, Baldwin's Elementary Psy- 
chology, or shnilar chapters in some other Fsychology. 

+ Lubbock. 



CEREBRAL GANGLIA. 



19 



anisms, the nervous system is the most wonderful. The 
organisms through which self keeps touch wdth the 
outer world are the 



SENSORIUM AND HOTOEIUB:. 




SENSOR 
GANGLIA. 



SENSOR 
NERVES. 



w 



SENSOR 
ORGANS. 



SPECIAL. ORGANIC. 



K 



INTELLECTIVE 
GANGLIA. 



K 



EMOTIVE 
GANGLIA. 



EYES, 
EARS, 
NOSE, 
MOUTH, 
SKIN, 
MUSCLES. 



MUSCLES, 

STOMACH, 

LUNGS, 

HEART, 

SKIN, 

ETC. 



■H 



MOTOR 
GANGLIA. 



MOTOR 
NERVES. 



w 



MOTOR 
ORGANS. 



From the standpoint of self, the cerebral ganglia are 
roughly grouped as above. The sensor-ganglia^ sen- 
sor-nerves, and sensor-organs constitute a marvelous 
telegraphic system called the sensorium. Through 
this system self receives all messages from the outer 
world. 

The motor-ganglia^ motor-nerves, and motor-or- 
gans constitute another wonderful telegra23liic system 
called the motorium. Through this system self trans- 
mits all messages and executes all volitions. 

Intellective and Emotive Ganglia. — Somehow, in connection with 
the intellective ganglia^ self perceives, represents, and thinks. In 
some unknown way, in connection with the emotive ganglia, self feels 
joy, hope, love. In the above diagram the intellective and emotive 
ganglia are inserted to give a complete view of the cerebral organism. 



20 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

^ 10 




Diagram of the sensori-motor processes of cerebral activity. 1, optic tTiala- 
mus with its centers and ganglionic cells. 2, corpus strzatimi. 3, 
course of the propagation of acoustic impressions : these arrive in the 
corresponding center (4), are radiated toward the sensorium (5), ajid 
reflected at 6 and 6' to the large cells of the corpus striatum^ and thence 
at 7 and 7' toward the motor'regions of the spinal axis. 8, cour.se of 
tactile impressions : these are concentrated (at 9) in the cori'esponding 
center, radiated thence into tlie plexuses of the sensorium (10), reflected 
to the large cortical cells (11), and thence propagated to trie large cells 
of the corpus striatum^ and finally to the diff'erent segments of the spi- 
nal axis. 13, course of optic impressions : these are concentrated (at 14) 
in their corresponding center, then radiated toward the sensorium (at 
15) ; they are reflected toward the large cells of the corpus striatum, 
and afterward propagated to the dift'erent segments of the spinal axis. — 
(Luys, '^ The Brain and its Functions," p. 61. Inserted by permission.) 



SENSOR ORGANS. 21 

Here we have an Inside View. Observe closely. A bell rings ; 
the sound-waves vibrate through the air, through the ear, through 
the auditory nerves, in the auditory ganglia. Self feels the vibra- 
tions and interprets them as a call to duty. Duty emotions occasion 
the determination to go to church ; the determination causes motor 
agitation in the motor-ganglia ; the motor-nerves transmit the exci- 
tation to the muscles ; the muscles respond by contracting and relax- 
ing, thus causing motion ; I walk to church. You do not know how 
self makes connection with ganglia. No one does, no one can. You 
must accept the fact. Place the above cuts on the board. Trace 
sensor excitation from objects through each of the special sensor 
lines to self and back through motor lines to movements. 

II. Sensor-Organs. — These organs look inward as well 
as outward. In these organs, somehow^ external molecu- 
lar motion is changed into internal molecular motion, 
called nerve-commotion, or sensor-excitation. The sen- 
sor-nerves convey sensor-excitations inward to sensor- 
ganglia. Each sensor-organ responds to its appropriate 
stimuli. Thus, through the action of light on the eye 
we see, and we hear when the ear responds to vibrations 
of sound. The end-oi'gans of hearing are situated in 
the internal ear, or labyrinth. Here acoustic waves 
transmitted by the tympanum are analyzed and changed 
from a physical molecular process to a nerve commo- 
tion, called sensor-excitation, which occasions hearing. 

1. The end-organs of sense are the special mechanisms which are 
adapted to convert the molecular motions called nerve stimuli into 
molecular motions called neural excitations. It is the office of the 
great mass of the eye to transmit and refract the rays of light, but 
when the nervous elements of the retina receive the physical processes 
transmitted to them, they transmute these physical processes into 
physiological nerve processes. 

2. The sole office of the nerves is the transmission of neural 
processes. The sensor-nerves transmit neural processes from end- 
organs to sensor-ganglia. Motor-ganglia transmute sensor-neural 



22 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

processes into motor-neural processes. The motor nerves transmit 
motor-impulses to the muscles, and these respond by contracting or 
relaxing, thus causing bodily movements. 

3. Cerebral-sensor-ganglia are terminal organs of sensor-nerves. 
The sensor-nerves have their roots in the cerebral substance as the 
tree has its roots in the earth. Here self and the material world 
touch. Self consciously feels the neural excitations of his sensor- 
ganglia ; these feelings are sensations. Through his sensations self 
perceives material objects ; this is sense-perceiving. 

III. Sensor-excitation is the affection of the nervous 
organism by external or internal sensor stimuli. Sound- 
waves affect the auditory apparatus, producing sensor- 
excitation. Wherever we find nerves we may infer 
sensor-excitations when these nerves are acted on by the 
appropriate stimuli. Light-waves excite the optic ap- 
paratus ; the agitation caused is sensor-excitation. Sen- 
sor-excitation is caused by external or internal stimuli, 
and when transmuted into motor-impulse expresses it- 
self in automatic or reflex bodily movements. Sensor- 
excitation occasions sensations when the excitation ter- 
minates in cerebral-sensor-ganglia. Sensor-excitation is 
caused by pliysical agencies and is wholly physical. 

lY. Unpurposed Sensor Action. — The motorium is 
the mechanism for bodily movements. It includes the 
motor-ganglia, the motor-nerves, and the muscles. In 
motor-ganglia sensor-excitation is transmuted into mo- 
tor-excitation called motor-impulse. The motor-nerves 
transmit motor-excitation from motor-ganglia to mus- 
cles. The muscles respond to motor-excitation by con- 
tracting and relaxing, thus causing motion. Unpur- 
posed movements are usually termed reflex, but are 
more definitely known as automatic, reflex, and in- 
stinctive. 



REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE ACTION. 23 

1. Automatic Action is rliytlimic movement caused 
by internal stimuli and tending to definite ends. Wink- 
ing, respiring, and heart-throbbing are automatic. In- 
stinctive action is largely automatic. Habitual action 
tends to become automatic, as walking, talking, and 
singing. Automatic action may be compared to the 
movements of a pendulum. 

2. Reflex Action is reaction from sensor-excitation 
caused by external stimuli. A movement caused by a 
sudden noise, an unexpected touch, or a thrill of pain, 
is reflex action. A large part of walking, mechanical 
work, talking, and singing, is reflex action. Indeed, it 
enters largely into all habitual movements and instinct- 
ive acts. Keflex action is response to stimuli ; it is the 
conversion of sensor-excitation into motor-impulse. 

Automatic action and reflex action occur in connection with 
the lower nerve-centers. An animal from which the cerebral hemi- 
spheres have been removed responds to appropriate stimuli with all 
the reflex action of which the perfect animal is capable ; but it is not 
aware of its acts, and is incapable of any mental act. Consciousness 
in man, and probably in all animals, occurs in connection with the 
cerebrum. Automatic and reflex movements occur in connection 
with the lower centers, and are strictly physical. 

3. Instinctive Action. — Animal life is the vital energy 
that adjusts environments to individuals ; instincts are 
the native energies that adjust individuals to environ- 
ments. Endowed with animal life and animal instincts, 
the animal germ builds up a physical organism. In- 
stincts lead to specific ends; they are the regulating 
impulses. Instincts act automatically through nerve- 
excitation, moving and guiding the animal to do the best 
for itself and for its species. Every instinct is an im- 



24 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

pulse. Instinctive impulses lie below the realm of con- 
sciousness ; instincts are organic and not mental ener- 
gies. To speak of religious instincts, mathematical in- 
stincts, and art instincts, is surely incorrect. 

Automatic, reflex, and instinctive action are organic and non- 
voluntary. Automatic applies to regular movements, as breathing, 
caused by internal stimuli. Reflex applies to reactions from exter- 
nal stimuli, as sneezing. Instinct applies to guiding impulses, as 
the mating instinct. 

Make your Nervous System an Ally. — One becomes a mental mil- 
lionaire by early and always rooting all right and useful actions into 
habits. Habitual acts tend to become automatic, and self is left free 
to expend all his energies in making new conquests. Most move- 
ments in walking and talking are automatic. A marvelous mech- 
anism is the ready servant of self to do the drudgery of life. Prob- 
ably more than nine-tenths of all our movements are automatic, 
reflex, or instinctive. When these are organized into right habits 
there is no friction. Only when our habits are wrong do we have to 
•waste our energies in inhibiting these tendencies. 

Cerebrum and Self. — So blended are mental activity and brain 
activity that self is sometimes confounded with his physical organ- 
ism. But a self-conscious physical organism is not even conceivable. 
With sensor-excitation in the sensor-cerebral-ganglia the series of 
physical forces terminates. Self initiates a new series. Mental acts 
are occasioned but not caused. Self does these acts ; self is the cause. 
To establish the theory of one substance and one series the votaries 
of materialism are forced to sacrifice self, God, immortality. They 
think of mind as mere fleeting phenomena, a succession of nervous 
shocks, a secretion of the brain. Materialism is a cruel master, 
annihilating even hope. 

Unconscious Cerebration is a vicious expression, implying that a 
brain thinks ; that the cerebrum goes on doing acts of knowing of 
which self is not aware. This notion is one of a nest of vipers that 
prey upon the vitals of a true psychology. Self-scrutiny is the 
antidote. Self, not organism, does all mental acts. Self is ever 
aware in some degree. A brain is merely a physical organism in 
connection with which self, in some unknown way, thinks, feels, and 
wills. 



THE ECONOMY OF THE SENSES. 25 

II. Sensation. 

Sensor-excitations occur in the cerebral-sensor-gan- 
glia. Self feels and is aware of feeling these excitations. 
Tliese feelings are sensations. With sensor-excitations 
in the cerebral ganglia the physical series of cause and 
effect terminates. Self transforms these sensor-excita- 
tions into sensations, and thus initiates a new series, 
called the mental series. The term, sensation, is used 
to designate the capability to feel sensor-excitations as 
well as the feeling. 

I. Sensor-Excitations. — ISTerve-commotion conditions 
but does not cause sensations. In the mind series, self 
causes ; mental acts are occasioned, not caused. All 
connection of self with the outer world comes primarily 
through the sensor-excitation of the nervous organism. 
The excitation of the cerebral-sensor-ganglia is the last 
link in the chain of physical effects. Self consciously 
feels the excitation ; here body and mind clasp hands ; 
here there is a uniform psycho-physical connection be- 
tween the two worlds ; here self converts physical sen- 
sor-excitations into mental feelings, into sensations. 
The process, like all ultimate processes, is inscrutable 
to mortal vision. We only know that self consciously 
feels cerebral sensor-excitations, and that out of these 
feelings he makes his sense-ideas. 

II. Sensation. — This is the capability of self to con- 
sciously feel sensor-excitations. Sensation is also used 
to designate the feeling occasioned by sensor-excitation. 
A sensation is the conscious feeling of sensor-excitation. 
The clock strikes : the sound-waves vibrate through the 
air, through my ears, through my auditory nerves, in 



26 ■ APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING 

my auditory ganglia. I consciously feel tlie sensor- 
excitation : this is so%ind-sensatio;ifh . The moon, rises. 
The light-waves vibrate through space, through my 
eyes, through my optic nerves, in my optic ganglia ; 
I consciously feel the sensor-excitation; this is light- 
sensation. 

The Economy of the Senses. — By sensation we mean the result in 
consciousness of any affection of the sensorium. It is a feeling oc- 
casioned by something independent of self. Through sensations we 
perceive the outer world. Each sense makes special contributions, 
but each borrows from all the others. Nothing is more admirable 
than the economy of the senses.* 

Cerebral-Sensor-Ganglia. — Sensation occurs in connection with 
these ganglia. Animals whose cerebral hemispheres are removed are 
incapable of sensation of any kind ; nerve-excitations can only ter- 
minate in reflex movements. Sensation and consciousness are want- 
ing. Sensor-excitation terminates in sensor-ganglia, and in the lower 
centers it expresses itself in automatic and reflex movements. In 
the cerebral ganglia, self feels the excitations and transforms them 
into sensations. There are no sensations where self is not aware of 
the sensor-excitations. The clock strikes, but you do not hear it.f 

III. Sensation is Feeling. — I know something, I feel 
somehow, I make some effort. Self feels as well as 



SENSATIONS 







knows and wills. Feelings are agreeable or disagreea- 
ble experiences. Sensations are feelings occasioned by 
sensor-excitations. All sensor-excitations of which self 
is aware are sensations. Sensations of sound, sensations 
of light, sensations of bodily movements, sensations 

* Hopkins. t Ladd. 



SENSOR ORGANS. 27 

of pain, sensations of hunger, sensations of cold, are 
some of the myriad sensations that one feels. These 
feelings are grouped as organic and special sensations. 

1. Organic sensations are occasioned by internal stimuli. The 
sympathetic nervous system is a marvelous automatic mechanism 
unitizing the bodily organism. Visceral sensations, respiratory sen- 
sations, sensations of weariness, sensations of comfort or discomfort, 
sensations of hunger, motor sensations, are some of the countless 
forms of organic sensation. The cerebro-spinal system has direct 
connection with the organic sensor organs, thus bringing together 
self and his entire body. The quickening or retarding of the circu- 
lation caused by different emotions, and the gloom and unreason- 
ableness occasioned by dyspepsia are familiar illustrations. A man's 
religious and philosophic views are strikingly affected by the con- 
dition of his body. The hale man is an optimist ; the rheumatic 
dyspeptic is likely to be a pessimist. On the other hand, how aston- 
ishing the influences of the mind on the body ! Gloom and despair 
sap vitality, but cheerfulness and hope cure better than medicine. 

"2. Special sensatioiis are occasioned by external stimuli, and are 
the elements out of which self makes his ideas of material things. 
The special sensor organs are special adaptations to the influences of 
external stimuli. The ear is adapted to sound, and the eye to light. 
The eye receives molecular light-waves, and changes these into 
nerve-commotion called sensor-excitation. The nerve-commotions 
pass through the optic nerves to the optic ganglia. Self consciously 
feels the sensor-excitation of his optic ganglia ; this feeling is light- 
sensation. 



Special Sensor Organs 
and Special Sensations. 



Eyes Light-sensations. 

Ears Sound-sensations. 

Nose Odor-sensations. 

Mouth Flavor-sensations. 

c, . j Tactile-sensations. 

* * ( Temperature-sensations. 
Muscles.. . .Pressure- sensations. 



Temperature nerves as well as tactile nerves have their end-organs 
in the skin. Pressure nerves as well as organic sensor nerves have 
their end-organs in the muscles. (See diagram, p. 19.) 



28 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACIIIXG. 

V. Sensations and Sense-Ideas. — Sensations are tlie 
stuff out of wliicli self makes sense-ideas. I am de- 
pendent on sensations for all I know or can know of 
the material world. But through sensations I may per- 
ceive all that the outer world has to present. Out of 
sensations I make sense-ideas and think these into con- 
cepts and judgments and reasons. But, somehow, I 
must continually go back to sensations and so keep 
touch with the material world. Sensations are funda- 
mental experiences of self. The infant self, first of all, 
experiences sensations, and through sensations slowly 
gains sense-ideas. Material things act on a sensorium, 
causing sensor-excitations which occasion sensations. 
Self perceives things, gains sense-ideas. 



SENSE— IDEAS 



SENSATIONS 



SENSOR— EXCITATIONS 



SENSORIUM 



MATERIAL WORLD— SENSOR NERVE STIMULI 



III. Sense-Perception — Sense-Intuition. 

This is the capability of self to gain sense-knowledge. 
Self lives in and acts through a material organism. 
"We dwell in a material world. The native energy of 
self to master the sense-world is termed sense-percep- 
tion or sense-intuition. Sense-perception is self per- 
ceiving external objects. It is direct insight into the 
matter world. It is sense-intuition. Self as sense-per- 
ception intuitively gains sense-ideas termed sense-per- 
cepts. 



SENSE-PERCEPTS. 29 

I. Sensation and Sense-Perception. — I see the apple 
red, and feel it smootli, and taste it delicious, and smell 
it fragrant. The sight-sensations and touch-sensations 
and taste-sensations and smell-sensations are occasioned 
bj the apple-excitations of my sensorium. Out of 
these sensations, immediate and remembered, I form the 
idea, this apple. My native power to gain sense-ideas 
through sensations is sense-perception. I am aware of 
feeling the excitations of my sensorium, and I learn to 
call these feelings sensations. Out of my sensations, 
immediate and revived, I make my notions of material 
things. Sensation makes sense-perception possible. The 
native energy of self to intuitively perceive sense-ideas 
through sensations is sense-intuition, is sense-perception. 

II. Sense-Percepts. — These are notions of individual 
material things. My notion of this tree, this book, this 
house, this pencil, or this hand, is a sense-percept. 
What I know about a material object is a sense-per- 
cept. Sensations, immediate and remembered, are the 
stuff out of which sense-ideas are made. Sense^ercept 
is one of the few terms now generally used in the same 
sense in mental and educational science and in litera- 
ture. Every one understands by a sense-percept a no- 
tion of a material thing. A sense-percept is a particular 
sense-idea, a notion of a particular sense-object. 

Sense-Percept. — The process of localizing sensations and referring 
them to definite objects is known as sense-perception. To perceive 
an orange is to refer orange-sensations to an object called an orange. 
The complete psychical product is called a sense-percept.* 

Sense-perception gives us the idea of externality. We perceive 
material objects as out of and independent of self. We perceive 

* Hopkins. 



30 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

things as extended and exercising energy. Sense-perception is a 
property of the mind just as certainly as gravity is a property of 
matter. It is the native energy of self to perceive material things. 
We look directly on material objects.* 

Sense-percepts do not resemble the material objects ; they are signs 
which represent to ns the objects. Sensation and perception are sub- 
jective, but the thing perceived is objective ; hence sense-percepts 
are said to be objective ; they are notions of things independent of 
the mind, f Our notions of things with qualities are sense-percepts. 
Some writers make unnecessary complexity by calling an idea gained 
through a single sense, as this red, an individual sense-percept ; and 
the notion of an object gained through all the senses, as this red apple, 
a general sense-percept. These distinctions merely confuse and do not 
help. An idea is either a percept or a concept. My notion of a par- 
ticular thing, as this horse, is a percept ; but my notion of a class of 
things, as quadruped, is a concept. There can be no excuse for the 
misuse of these terms. A sense-percept is a notion of a material 
object. 

III. Self makes Sense-Percepts. — A nervous system 
intervenes between a self and a material world. An ob- 
ject having physical properties affects my sensorium and 
occasions sensations. I feel this orange rongh, I taste 
it delicious, I smell it fragrant, I see it orange-color, I 
hear it dull, I weigh it heavy. Out of my orange-sen- 
sations, old and new, I form the idea, this orange. 
I discriminate and assimilate ; I interpret sensations 
as the operator interprets the clickings of the tele- 
graph. I gain distinct ideas of individual objects. 
These ideas are sense-percepts. My power to gain 
sense-percepts is sense-perception. 

lY. Self-Perception. — Self-Intuition. 

This is the capability to gain self-knowledge. It is 
the power of direct insight into the mind-world. I 

* McCosh. + Compayre. 



SELF-PERCEPTION.— SELF-INTUITION, 31 

perceive myself remembering the diameter of the 
earth, and I gain the notion, this memory. As the 
remembering is an act of self, and as I perceive myself 
remembering, I call the idea gained a self -idea, a self- 
percept, a self -intuition. The native energy of self to 
gain self-percepts is called self -perception, self -intuition, 
conscious-perception, and self-consciousness. Self-per- 
ception or self-intuition clearly expresses the meaning. 
Self-jperception is self jperceiving himself knowing^ 
feeling, willing. It is the mind knowing itself in its 
knowledge, emotions, and volitions. It is the power of 
introspection. 

I. Awareness and Self-Perception. — Awareness of 
knowing, feeling, and willing is consciousness. I am 
aware of my own acts ; I am conscious. I am aware 
of feeling sad, of seeing the rainbow, of preferring 
Chicago to New York. '^'^'Consciousness is awareness 
of present mental acts. Out of his awareness, self 
makes notions of his own acts. I perceive myself ad- 
miring Gladstone, and I gain the notion, this ad- 
miration. This is self-perception, and the product is 
a self-percept. As self makes his sense-ideas out of 
his sensations, so he makes his self-ideas out of his 
awareness. 

The brute feels sensations, but, as Darwin says, gains no well- 
defined sense-ideas. The brute is vaguely aware of its acts, but it 
gains no self-ideas ; is not aware of itself as doing the acts. Only 
persons gain self-ideas. Only persons are self-conscious. The brute 
is not self-conscious, is not a person. At most, brute mentality is 
impersonal. The brute is not a self. 

II. Self-Percepts are Self-Intuitions, or Conscious-Per- 
cepts. — These are self-ideas. I look directly into the 



32 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

mind-world and gain notions of my individual acts, and 
of my capabilities to do these acts. I perceive myself 
imagining, hoping, judging. By direct insight I gain 
self-knowledge. My notions of my individual mental 
acts are self -percepts. I perceive myself recalling my 
visit to the Golden Gate. The notion 1 have of self 
remembering this visit is a self-percept. My notion 
of each of my acts of knowing, feeling, and willing, is 
a self -percept, a self - intuition, a conscious -percept. 
Self-percepts are notions of particular mental acts. 
Sense-percepts are particular sense-notions, and self- 
percepts are particular self-notions. 

" Introspection is internal observation — our consciousness of the 
activity of the mind itself. The subject who observes is the object 
observed Consciousness is knowing of self. This seems to be the 
characteristic of mind. 

" Outward observation is objective perception or sense-perception. 
It perceives things and environments. Things are always relative 
to their environment. Things are therefore dependent beings. 
They stand in causal relation to other things, and if moved are 
moved from without by external forces. 

" Introspection or internal observation, on the other hand, per- 
ceives the activity of the mind, and this is self-activity and not a 
movement caused by external forces. Feelings, thoughts, volitions 
are phases of self-activity. A feeling, a thought, or a volition im- 
plies subject and object. Each is an activity and an activity of the 
self. External perception does not perceive any self. It perceives 
only what is extended in time and space and what is consequently 
multiple, what is moved by something else and not self-moved. If 
it beholds living objects it does not behold the self that animates 
the body, but only the body that is organically formed by the self. 
But introspection beholds the self." * 

III. A Self is a Conscious Person. — A self is a spirit 
entity, a real being, a self-conscious person. This liv- 

* W. T. Harris. 



CONSCIOUS PERSONALITY. 33 

ing tree is an individual thing endowed with vegetable 
spontaneity ; this dog is an individual animal endowed 
with animal spontaneity ; but we never think of trees 
and dogs as persons. A self is an individual person en- 
dowed with mental spontaneity. Each mental act is an 
event of which self is conscious, and which he cognizes 
as his own act. The web of a long life is a personal 
unit. Those were my acts, and this is my act. For 
those acts I deserve praise but for this act, blame. Self 
as consciousness weaves the web of life. I am conscious 
of building a character, of being intelligent, benevolent, 
free. Conscious personality elevates me almost infinitely 
above the brute. 

lY. Physical Basis of Consciousness. — It is certain 
that awareness occurs in connection with the cerebral 
hemispheres. When the cerebrum is removed the ani- 
mal, though capable of reflex action gives no indication 
of consciousness. But all attempts to connect conscious- 
ness with special ganglia, or to express awareness in 
terms of nerve-commotion, have proved and must prove 
dismal failures. I am aware of my own mental acts, 
and of self doing these acts. I perceive myself doing 
acts different in kind. Intuitively I gain notions of my 
individual acts and of my capabilities to do these acts, 
and I call these notions self-ideas, or self -percepts ; I am 
a self-conscious, self -determining person. This is about 
all that can be said. Here the no-soul theorist must for- 
ever pause. Conscious personality is the grandest of all 
conceptions, and to the materialist the profoundest of 
all mysteries. It means an enduring self, forever becom- 
ing more and more noble. It means spirituality, immor- 
tality, God. It is the key to the mysteries of the universe. 



34: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Y. !N"ecessary-Perception. — IS'ecessaey-Intuition. 

This is the capability to gain necessary knowledge. 
It is the power of direct insight into the world of 
necessary realities. Self is endowed with the capability 
to perceive necessary realities and gain intuitively neces- 
sary ideas. S23ace must be, that things 7)%ay be ; space 
is a necessary reality. I notice the objects in this room ; 
I gain the idea, this where things are • I gain the idea, 
this space. Because I can not think of things as local 
and extended without having the space idea, I call this 
a necessary idea. ISTecessary ideas are notions of neces- 
sary realities. The capability to gain immediately ne- 
cessary ideas is termed necessary perception, or neces- 
sary intuition. Necessary perception is self perceiving 
necessary realities. 

I. Necessary realities are the realities that inust be, 
that things may be. "We may roughly group necessary 
realities as necessary elements, necessary conditions, and 
necessary relations. In our times the enduring realities 
that make phenomena possible are called noumena. 

1. Necessary Elements. — Matter and mind are the 
elements of the universe. This magnet is heavy, cohe- 
sive, "magnetic, hard ; the material entity that is heayy, 
cohesive, magnetic, hard, is material substance. Mate- 
rial substance is the matter element of the universe. 
That physical phenomena may be, material substance 
must be. Matter is the material element of which we 
affirm physical phenomena. 

The conscious self that knows, feels, and wills is an 
actual being, a spirit entity, a mind. That mental phe- 
nomena may be, self must be. Mind is the spirit ele- 



NECESSARY REALITIES AND NECESSARY IDEAS. 35 

ment of the universe. A self is the mind element of 
which we affirm psychical phenomena. Matter and 
mind are necessary realities — are noumena and not 
phenomena. Matter and mind must be, that physical 
and mental phenomena onay be. 

Matter and Mind. — These are elements. Matter is that out of 
which material things are made ; mind is the spirit element of the 
universe. Everything perceived through at least one of the senses 
is a material object ; every self-conscious thinker is a spiritual self. 
Inertia, extension, and impenetrability characterize matter; sponta- 
neity, sensation, and awareness characterize mind. Bound up in 
matter are the physical forces — gravity, cohesion, chemism, sound, 
light, heat, electricity, magnetism; bound up in a mind are the 
mental energies — intellect, sensibility, will. A material thing is an 
object ; a mind is both object and subject. I perceive myself think- 
ing. Physical effects are caused ; mental acts are occasioned — self 
is the cause. Material things are moved ; a mind is self-moving. 

2. Necessary Conditions. — Duration, space, cause, 
are the necessary conditions of phenomena. Every 
thing must be some when, some where, and some how. 
That things may be, time, space, and cause inust be. 
Time, space, and cause are necessary realities ; are 
noumena and not phenomena. 

3. Necessary Relations. — These are truth-relations, 
beauty-relations, and duty-relations. These articulate 
the eternal fitness of things, and make science and art 
and character possible. Truth is correspondence with 
reality. That ice is cold is a truth. But I must have 
the truth idea before I can say " this is trueP In the 
same way we know beauty and duty and infinity and 
axiomatic relations as necessary realties. 

Necessary Correlations are classed as necessary realities. These 
truths are the axioms we gain by direct insight. They are the ful- 



36 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

crura that makes it possible for us to move the world. I can not say 
a = c when a = h and h = c, unless I have the idea that things which 
are equal to the same thing are equal to each other. This is a 
necessary truth. The axioms of logic, science, and life, as well as of 
mathematics, are necessary truths, expressing necessary correlations. 
Truth, beauty, duty, infinity, are necessary realities ; are noumena 
and not phenomena. 

II. Necessary Percepts. — The notions we gain intui- 
tively of necessary realities are termed necessary per- 
cepts, necessary intuitions, necessary ideas. Like all 
percepts, these are concrete ideas. I perceive this space, 
not infinite space. I perceive this cause, not that every 
effect must have a cause. I perceive this time, and not 
infinite duration. I perceive this material object, and 
not that there must be material substance back of all 
physical phenomena. I perceive myself acting, and not 
that there must be a self back of all mental phenomena. 
I perceive the jparticular and thinh the general. Ne- 
cessary percepts are particular notions of necessary 
realities. These notions are necessary ideas, which we 
generalize into necessary truths. I must have the beauty- 
idea before I can say this is beautiful. I must have the 
duty-idea before I can say I ought. I must have the 
self-idea before I can say self thinks. Sense-ideas and 
self-ideas are phenomenal percepts. ISTecessary ideas 
are noumenal percepts. 

III. Gaining Necessary Percepts. — Self is endowed 
with the native energy of direct insight into the world 
of necessary realities. I gain particular notions of ne- 
cessary realities intuitively, as I gain sense-ideas and 
self -ideas intuitively. The space in this room is envi- 
roned and continued by the space outside of the room. 
The space within the solar system is environed and con- 



NECESSARY IDEAS AND NECESSARY TRUTHS. 37 

tinned by tlie space beyond the solar system. The space 
within the known universe is environed and continued 
by the space beyond the known universe. There can 
be no limit to space ; it is infinite. Thus by direct in- 
sight I gain the idea, this infinity. Finite duration 
is environed and continued by duration. The present 
is bounded by two eternities. Duration is boundless. 
Intuitively I gain the idea, this infinity, I look imme- 
diately into the world of necessary realities and intui- 
tively gain notions of these realities. These notions are 
necessary ideas, necessary intuitions, necessary percepts. 
lY. Characteristics of Necessary Ideas. 1. They are 
self-evident. — I stand face to face with necessary reali- 
ties as I do with the sense-world and the self-world. I 
know space and cause just as I know color and memory, 
by direct insight. Truth shines by its own light. No 
proof is needed to satisfy me that these equals divided 
by these equals give equal quotients ; it is self-evident. 
IN'o proof is needed to satisfy me that something makes 
the pot boil, or that these things are somewhere. I per- 
ceive this cause, this space. This is immediate insight 
into the nature of things ; this is perception, intuition ; 
this is self -evidence. 

2. These Ideas are necessary. — [N'oumena must be, 
that phenomena may be. We must have necessary 
ideas, that we may have phenomenal ideas. I must have 
the space-idea before I can have the idea of length, 
breadth, or thickness. 

3. All accept Necessary Ideas. — They are universal. 
^No sane person ever questions them. Endowed with 
necessary intuition, every man dwells in the immediate 
presence of necessary realities ; necessary ideas are 



38 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

the common furniture of human minds. ISTotions of 
necessary realities are self-evident, necessary, and uni- 
versal, and are the basis of all our knowing. 

Y. Necessary Ideas and Necessary Truths. — Self as 
necessary intuition gains immediately necessary ideas. 
As thought, self elaborates his necessary ideas into ne- 
cessary truths. That this straight line is the shortest 
distance between these two points is an intuitive idea ; 
the generalization is a necessary truth. Axioms are 
necessary truths derived from necessary ideas. I gain 
directly necessary percepts and think these into neces- 
sary truths. It must be emphasized that intuitions are 
particular notions which we think into general notions. 

YI. Peeceptive Knowing. 

This is immediate knowing. It is gaining a direct 
elementary knowledge of self and his environments. 
Since self gains this knowledge first hand, perceptive 
knowing is classed as experimental knowing. 

I. Perceptive Powers. — Self is endowed with capa- 
bilities to look directly into the three worlds. As sense- 
perception, self looks directly into the matter-world and 
gains sense-ideas ; as self -perception, self looks directly 




into the mind-world and gains self -ideas ; as necessary- 
perception, self looks directly into the world of necessary 
realities and gains necessary ideas. 



PERCErTIVE KNOWING. 39 

II. Perceptive Acts. — Self is endowed with distinct 
energies. Each capabihty has its specific office. But 
self acts as a unit and commands the entire key-board of 
his capabilities. Mental acts are complex, never simple. 
While I know, I also feel and will. While I perceive, I 
remember and think and desire and attend. The great 
fact of the mental economy, '^All the caj?ahilities sii^pple- 
ment and re-enforce eacJi^'' needs to be kept continually 
in view. We say a mental act is perceptive when per- 
ception characterizes it ; is representative when repre- 
sentation predominates ; is elaborative when thought is 
most prominent ; is emotive when emotion is its leading 
feature ; is volitional when volition characterizes the act. 
Acts of immediate knowing are perceptive acts. These 
acts are grouped as sense-perceiving, self -perceiving, 
and necessary-perceiving. 




Sense-jperceiving is self gaining intuitively sense- 
notions. I perceive this silver dollar. I know it is a 
material thing with properties. Back of the phenom- 
ena of hardness, brightness, etc., I perceive material 
substance. I am aware of perceiving the dollar. Thus 
necessary-perceiving and self-perceiving supplement 
sense-perceiving. But I gain the notion, this dollar ; 
the act is essentially an act of sense-perceiving. 

Self-perceiving is self gaining intuitively self-no- 
tions. I perceive myself pitying a suffering child. I 



4:0 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

know this is my own act. Back of the act I perceive 
self. Then I see and hear the sufferer. Thus neces- 
sary-perceiving and sense-perceiving supplement self- 
perceiving. But I gain the notion, this pity ; the act is 
essentially an act of self -perception. 

Necessary-^perceimng is self gaining intuitively ne- 
cessary notions. I see the apple falling. I know some- 
thing caused it to fall. I perceive this cause, and know 
it as a necessary reality. I am conscious of this per- 
ceiving. Thus sense-perceiving and self-perceiving 
supplement necessary-perceiving. But I gain the ne- 
cessary notion this cause / the act is essentially an act 
of necessary-perception. 

III. Perceptive Products. — I^Totions gained by direct 
insight are percepts or intuitions. These notions are 
characterized as concrete, individual, particular, because 
they are notions of particular things. 




The notions which self as sense-perception gains of 
material things are sense-j)ercepts, sense-intuitions, sense- 
ideas; the notions which self as self -perception gains 
of mental acts are self -percepts, self -intuitions, self -ideas ; 
the notions which self as necessary-perception gains of 
necessary-realities are necessary -percepts^ necessary-intu- 
itions, necessary-ideas. 

Assimilation — Apperception. — Self assimilates his new and his old 
experiences, and views as a whole all his acquisitions. A mind uni- 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 4-1 

fies its entire contents. I constantly integrate my present experi- 
ences with ray past. At every step I discriminate and assimilate, 
and thus unitize my acquisitions. In doing this I command all my 
powers. Assimilation is sometimes called apperception. " I have 
not used the term apperception,'' says James, " because the varia- 
tions in its usage are absolutely innumerable. I consider assimila- 
tion the most fruitful term yet used." 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

I. Helpful Books.— A recent physiology comes first, but you 
need to restudy the nervous organism from the standpoint of self. 
Ladd's Physiological Psychology is, I think, one of the best presen- 
tations of the sensor-organs and sensation. I have found Hopkins's 
Study of Man, Porter's Human Intellect, McCosh's Cognitive Powers, 
and Sully's Psychology, suggestive and helpful. Ponderous works 
are for advanced students and specialists. You must first master 
elementary works. 

II. Letter— Perceptive-Knowing. — I recommend you to write to 
an appreciative friend a clear, concise statement of your views of per- 
ceptive-knowing. This will help you to grasp the subject. The letter 
is very much better than the essay. Your effort to luake this difiicult 
subject, clear to your friend will help you more than reading many 
volumes. You may be called upon to read the letter before the class 
or reading circle or institute. 

III. Sensor-Organism.— Do you clearly grasp the structure of the 
nervous organism? Draw a nerve-cell — illustrate by a clot of jelly; 
draw a nerve — illustrate by a small tube filled with liquid or by a 
pencil ; draw and connect several ganglia — illustrate by a galvanic 
battery. What do you mean by the sensorium ? by sensor organs i 
by end-organs of sense ? by sensor-nerves ? by sensor-ganglia ? 

IV. Sensor-Excitation. — Explain nerve-stimuli ; external stim- 
uli ; internal stimuli. What is nerve-stimulus to the optic apparatus? 
to the auditory apparatus ? to the olfactory apparatus ? to the gus- 
tatory apparatus ? to the tactile apparatus ? Where does physical mo- 
tion become nerve-commotion ? How is nerve-commotion transmitted 
from the end-organs of sense to sensor-ganglia ? Do sensor-ganglia 
transmute nerve-commotions into sensor-excitation ? State proofs. 

V. Motorinm and Motor-Excitation.— What does the motoriura 
include ? What do we mean by motor-excitation % Explain auto- 



42 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

matic action — illustrate by the ticking of the clock. Explain reflex 
action. What do you mean by instinct ? Explain instinctive ac- 
tion. How do automatic action and instinctive action differ ? 

VI. Sensation. — What is sensation "? Prove that sensation oc- 
curs always in connection with cerebral-sensor-ganglia. Show the 
difference bet wen sensor-excitation and sensation — illustrate by the 
clickings of the telegraph in absence of the operator. Why do you 
object to such expressions as unconscious-cerebration ? 

VII. Sense-Perception. — Explain sense-perception and sense-in- 
tuition. Show the relation between sense-perception and sensation 
— illustrate by the operator interpreting the clickings of the tele- 
graph. Show how you gain the notion of this apple, this orange, 
this rose. What is a sense-percept ? How do particular notions 
differ from general notions ? Give five examples. 

VIII. Self-Perception. — Are you aware of your own acts ? Do 
you perceive yourself perceiving the mountain ? What do you mean 
by self-perception? self-intuition? self-consciousness? How does 
self -perception differ from awareness ? What is a self-percept ? Give 
several examples. Are self-percepts general or particular notions ? 
Compare sense-perception and self-perception. 

IX. ISTecessary Perception. — What do you mean by realities ? by 
necessary realities ? Show that space, time, cause, matter, and mind 
are necessary realities. How do you gain ideas of necessary reali- 
ties ? Show how you gain ideas of the realities named. What is a 
necessary-percept ? 

X. AH the CapabiUties of Self supplement each. — ^What capabili- 
ties supplement and re-enforce sense-perception ? self-perception ? 
necessary-perception ? Give examples. It is hoped that the outline 
on page 2 will aid you to better grasp this truth. This presentation 
may help you to think of the entire self doing each mental act. A 
faculty is merely a capability of self to act in a particular way, as in 
sense perceiving, remembering, desiring, choosing. 

XI. Laboratory Work.— You will find original research in the 
mind-world as valuable as in the matter-world. You can do some- 
thinffj and the little you do yourself will enable you to appropriate 
the experiences of the army of specialists. Sandford says : " As long 
as psychologists live upon the crumbs that fall from the tables of 
neurology and physiology they will live in dependence. They must 
investigate for themselves — no less rigorously and no less broad- 
mindedly than others, but from their own standpoint, and must view 



EDUCATION OF SENSE-PERCEPTION. 43 

what they find in its psychological perspective." But, however fas- 
cinating to advanced students, and however valuable in some of its 
results, the " laboratory methods " are not meant for beginners. Even 
Aristotle and Hamilton are much easier for young students and 
more valuable than the " original researches " of Fichte, or Wundt, 
or Fechner, or Meynert, or Spitzka, or Hartwig, or Herbart. Intro- 
spection is the true experimental method. The student looks with- 
in, and intuitively gains self-knowledge, just as he looks without and 
intuitively gains sense-knowledge. This is the natural method, and 
must ever precede and accompany the laboratory method. 



CHAPTER III. 

EDUCATION OF SENSE-PEKCEPTION. 

The foundation for all forms of mental growth must 
be laid in sense-activity. Sense-ideas underlie all other 
ideas ; sense-intuition is fundamental in the mental econ- 
omy. In the acquisition of sense-knowledge the child 
begins its education. 

I. Place of Sense-Peeception — Tekms defined. 

1. delations. Self knows, feels, and wills. All 
mental energies supplement each other. Self gains a 
notion of a new material object. In this act revived 
sensations are assimilated with immediate sensations : 
there is discrimination as well as assimilation ; there is 
the desire to find out as well as attention. Then the 
idea gained is remembered, awakens emotion, occasions 
choice, and leads to action. 

2. Hygiene and sense-perception. Perfect sensa- 
tions come of perfect health. The body needs to be 
kept in the best possible condition. Right hygienic 



44 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



habits are cardinal. Living is a constant joy to the 
healthy child, and its sensations are perfect. Its senses 

require no culture ; it is the 
capability to gain knowledge 
through the senses that must 
be cultivated. 

3. Sensation is the ca- 
pability to consciously feel 
sensor - excitations. Sensa- 
tions are sensor-excitations of 
which self is aware. The 
term sensation is used to des- 
ignate the feeling as well as 
the capability to feel sensor- 
excitations. 

4. Sense-peTcej[>tion is the 
power of self to gain sense- 
percepts ; sense - perception 
is also known as sense-intui- 
tion and outer - perception 
and sense - presentation. 
Sense-perception and sense- 
intuition are synonyms, and 
are everywhere used inter- 
changeably. 

5. A sense-percept relates to a particular material 
object. Our ideas of individual material objects are 
our sense-percepts. Sense-percepts are particular sense- 
notions ; sense-percept and sense-intuition are synony- 
mous terms. 

6. Education of sense-pei'ception is the development 
of the power to gain sense-knowledge. The education 




IMPORTANCE OF SENSE-PERCEPTION CULTURE. 45 

of the capability to gain sense-ideas makes the differ- 
ence between the feeble, halting, imperfect perceiving 
of the child and the vigorous, penetrating, exact obser- 
vations of the scientist. It is not the senses that we 
educate, but the capability to interpret sensations. 

II. Importance of Sense-Perception Culture. 

Mental activity begins with sensations. Light-waves 
vibrate through my optic apparatus, bringing to me a 
world of color and form and movement ; sound-waves 
vibrate through my auditory apparatus, bringing to me a 
world of speech and song ; excitations of my tactile and 
olfactory and gustatory apparatus open to me the worlds 
of touch and smell and taste. The importance of sense- 
perception culture can hardly be too strongly stated. 

1. Sense-perception culture gives the mastery of the matter-world. 
We learn to so observe as to become acquainted with the things 
around us ; step by step we explore earth and sea and sky. 

2. Sense-perception culture enables us to build on experience. I 
experience my sense-knowledge. On this rock I build. I am cer- 
tain ; I know intuitively things having properties ; I know for my- 
self. As an educator, I lead the child to build on its own expe- 
riences. 

3. Sense-perce'ption culture gives a basis for clear thinlcing. It 
enables me to gain exact sense-percepts. Through these I think up 
to exact concepts and judgments and reasons. The foundation is 
laid in sense-knowing ; clear perceiving makes clear thinking pos- 
sible. 

4. Neglect of sense-perception culture. In our time, this is inex- 
cusable ; but, alas ! the neglect is still too common. Visit a hundred 
schools : half are destitute of the best means for sense-perception cul- 
ture. Neither the teachers nor the pupils seem to realize that the mas- 
tery of the glorious world all about them is pre-eminently their work ; 
nevertheless we have a host of wise teachers who lead their pupils in 
the conquest of the matter-world and thus educate sense-perception. 



46 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



III. Growth of Sense-Intuition'. 



^f^v^^W 



b^c^^ 



The capability to gain sense- 
ideas is the first cognitive power 
to become active. Infant sense- 
perception is obscure and halting. 
To observe the slowly-developing 
sense - activity during the first 
months of life is highly interesting. 
Taste, touch, and sight seem to be 
slightly active when the infant is 
but a few hours old ; hearing, 
smell, and some of the organic 
senses become feebly active within 
a few days after birth. Yery early 
the sensorium seems to respond to 
all kinds of sense-excitation. The 
early sense-impressions of the little 
ones are not ideas, but something 
lower, such as brutes gain ; but 
before the child can talk it evi- 
dently acquires many wordless 
ideas. It is able to understand 
words before it can say them. 
Thus the little ones during the 
first months begin the work of 
mastering the material world. 
"When the child begins to use 
words as signs of things, the 
growth of sense-intuition becomes 
very marked. By the end of the 
third year the senses are fully 



LAWS OF SENSE-PERCEPTION GROWTH. 47 

active and the child has gained a considerable stock of 
sense-ideas.* 

1. From three to six is now recognized as the Kindergarten peri- 
od. During this period the growth of sense-perception is wonderful. 
The foundation of future achievement is now laid in sense-experi- 
ence. Not the culture of the senses, but of the power to gain sense- 
notions, is the aim. 

2. From six to ten is the primary period. Sense-intuition is now 
highly active The child is trained to observe closely and to gain 
and express clear sense-ideas; education is now literally objective 
woi-k. 

3. jProm ten to fourteen is the intermediate period., coming be- 
tween childhood and youth. Sense-intuition is now fully active. 
Boys and girls gain a deeper insight into things having properties ; 
observation now becomes active and penetrating ; clear-cut sense- 
percepts are now gained and thought into concepts and judgments. 

4. From, fourteen to eighteen is the high-school period. Observa- 
tion now becomes scientific and the youth learns science. Sense- 
perception, the power to gain accurate sense-knowledge, is at its 
best. This is the science period. 

5. From eighteen to twenty-two is the college period. Observa- 
tion is now penetrating, exact, and exhaustive. Nature yields up 
her secrets to the student. 

6. Sense-perception is kept vigorous by use eren in old age. The 
eye may grow dim and the ear dull, but the power to interpret sen- 
sations may grow more and more powerful. The great French 
chemist Chevreul when a century old still prosecuted successfully 
his experiments. 

lY. Laws of Sense-Pekception Growth. 

A law is a nniform way in which an energy acts. 
Physical laws are uniform ways in which physical forces 
act — as, for instance, the laws of falling bodies. A 
mental law is a uniform way in w^hich a mental energy 

* I have found Preyer's Observations of the first years of child-life, 
vols, vii and ix, International Education Series, very helpful. 



48 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

acts, as a law of association. An educational law is a 
uniform way in which a mind must act in order to 
grow. Some educational laws are common to all our 
mental powers, and hence are called general laws. Other 
laws of mental growth are peculiar to certain mental 
energies, and are termed specific laws. 

I. General Laws. — The first great educational law is 
the law of effort — Effort under guidance educates. 
Among the various educational principles lying at the 
foundation of all true teaching, no one is so universally 
accepted as this. Education is the development of ca- 
pability by exercise. But, to make this practical, it is 
necessary to restate the general law in terms of each 
mental power : 

1. Law of effort. "Well-directed effort in gaining 
eense-percepts educates sense-perception. Such effort 
develops power. Directed exercise strengthens capa- 
bility. Endeavors to master the world of material 
things promote the growth of sense-intuition. 

2. Law of means. Whatever calls sense-percep- 
tion into vigorous activity is a means for its culture. 
We gain sense-ideas in the presence of sense-objects. 
The blind gain no ideas of color, because they have no 
light-sensations. The deaf gain no ideas of sound, be- 
cause they have no sound-sensations. Sense-experience 
is the basis of all mental activity. Acquiring such ex- 
perience by means of objective work educates sense- 
perception. 

3. Law of method. Systematic, persistent, and effi- 
cient plans of work, in mastering the matter-world, edu- 
cate sense-perception. Orderly, continued, and vigorous 
efforts develop power. 



MEANS FOR EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 49 

II. Special Laws. — The following and similar laws relate to sense- 
perception growth : 

1. Lav) of co7idiiions. A sound sensorium favors sense-percep- 
tion growth. Perfect sensations come of good health as well as 
of a sound organism. Physical improvement underlies mental im- 
provement. The wise teacher gives great attention to practical 
hygiene. 

2. Law of attention Interested attention to material things 
accelerates perception-growth. Distracted attention blurs sense-per- 
cepts, and no attention means no percepts. Attention is an indis- 
pensable condition of knowledge. 

3. Law of ascent. The object, the idea, the word ; this is the 
natural order of ascent. The child perceives the object, gains the 
idea, and embodies the idea in a word. 

4. Other laivs. You will discover other laws. A few laws aptly 
applied are best. When you realize that all good comes from work- 
ing in harmony with law, you will search for laws as for diamonds. 

Y. Means for educating Sense-Perception. 

Sense-perceiving is self gaining sense-ideas by means 
of sense-objects. A world of material things affords 
unlimited means for sense-in tuition culture. From this 
boundless store, wisdom seeks the best. 

A grindstone is a means of sharpening an axe, and 
a plow is a means of cultivating the soil. Mathematics 
is a means of educating judgment and reason. Art is 
a means of cultivating imagination. In general, what- 
ever tends to call forth normal mental activity may 
become a means for culture. 

I. Educational Values. — Studies are valuable for two 
things : for the culture they afford, and for the use 
that can be made of them. By culture here is meant 
the entire effect of knowledge on the mind, both in ac- 
quisition and possession. The word practical here 
signifies value for use. 



50 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



Educational values : 



1. Culture value. 

2. Practical value. 
Studies calculated to call forth the most vigorous 

and discriminating efforts in gaining sense-knowledge 
are of the higliest value in educating sense-perception. 
When such studies are also of the greatest practical 
value they become doubly valuable as educational 
means.* 

II. Table of Educational Values. — Some studies call 
sense-perception into constant and vigorous activity, 
and hence are of the highest value in educating this 
faculty. 



SENSE-PERCEPTION CULTURE, VALUE OF 


1 


2 
10 

10 

8 

? 

6 


3 


4 


Kindergarten work, and general object-lessons. . 
Botany, zoology, geology, chemistry, geography. 
Manual art-work, penmanship, drawing, molding. 
Reading, spelling, language-lessons, vocal music. 
Physiology, physics, astronomy 


10 

10 

9 

9 

8 

8 














. . . . 






Objective arithmetic, objective geometry 











Explanations. — The aim is to give in this table the 
comparative values for perception-culture of the lead- 
ing studies preceding college work. The values in col- 
umn (1) are the estimates of the author. The values in 
column (2) are the estimates of Dr. Brooks. Each 
student will place in column (3) his own estimated 
values, and then in column (4) the averages of columns 
1, 2, and 3. Mathematics, Latin, history, etc., are 
omitted because of their low value for sense-percep- 
tion culture. It needs to be emphasized and stated 



* I am indebted to Dr. Edward Brooks for valuable suggestions on 
educational values. 



METHODS OF EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 51 

again and again that the educational vahie depends 
largely on the methods of work. Often and often so- 
called object-lessons are of little value for sense-percep- 
tion culture, because the work is subjective and not 
objective. 

Suggestions. — 1. Besides the collections made by the 
pupils, every school-room should have a cabinet of 
classified minerals, plants, birds, etc. When suitable 
cases are provided, these things Avill gradually accumu- 
late, and are likely to be kept in good condition. 

2. In every school-room there should be a collec- 
tion of tools. These tools should belong to the school, 
and be under the control of the teacher as a part of the 
school apparatus. Tools are the means by which man- 
kind gain a living, and are not to be despised. They 
are the indexes on the dial-plate of civilization show- 
ing the advances of the race. The essentials are the 
hammer, the screw-driver, chisels, planes, borers, saws. 

3. Every school-room should have a set of weights 
and measures. The metric weights and measures should 
be used in connection with the common weights and 
measures. 

YI. Methods of edtjcating Sense-Perception. 

A laiv, a method^ a device ; these expressions are 
now specific. An educational law is a fundamental and 
guiding educational truth. Educational methods are 
outgrowths of educational laws. Good methods are 
systematic, persistent, and efficient plans of work. An 
educational device is a helpful educational expedient. 
A true educational method is a plan of work in har- 
mony with child-nature and the nature of the subject 



52 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

studied. It is doubtless best to consider methods from 
tlie standpoint of the pupil and as adaptations to stages 
of growth. Kindergarten methods are plans of work 
adapted to the child from the third to the sixth year. 
Primary methods are 'plans of work adapted to chil- 
dren from six to ten. Intermediate methods are plans 
of work adapted to pupils from ten to fourteen. High- 
school methods are plans of work adapted to pupils 
from fourteen to eighteen. College methods are plans 
of work adapted to college students. 

Methods of educating sense-intuition are plans of 
work that lead pupils to put forth systematic, persistent, 
and efficient effort in gaining sense-intuitions. 

I. Kindergarten Method of educating Sense-Perception. 
— By Kindergarten methods are meant plans of w^ork 
adapted to children under six years of age. Up to the 
third year, the mother is the Kindergartner. After 
the third year, the wise mother, when possible, puts her 
darling into a good Kindergarten. This is the period 
for sense-growth and for finding out how" to gain sense- 
knowledge.. Kindergarten work is admirably adapted 
to the promotion of these ends. 

1. Trying things educates sense-perception. The 
child becomes acquainted with things through testing 
them by his senses. The orange is seen and felt and 
tasted and smelled and weighed. The blind child can 
not find out color, but it can try the orange by all the 
other senses. 

2, Doing educates sense-perception. The child is 
led to do things purposely. It speaks, sings, draws, 
molds, handles, measures, makes, exercises, combines, 
builds. Doing such things brings the child into close 



METHODS OF EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 53 

and constant sense-contact with objects. It becomes 
acquainted with things — gains sense-ideas. This inti- 
mate and active contact educates sense-intuition. 

3. Ohserving educates sense-jpercejption. As early 
as the third year the child begins to linger over objects. 
It now discriminates more sharply. It now notices 
that wholes have parts. Its notions become fuller and 
clearer. We say the child begins to observe. Kinder- 
garten work trains the little ones to so observe as to 
gain correct notions of things. 

Kindergarten Work. — Every teacher should study some good 
Kindergarten manual, such as The Mother's Songs and Games, as 
well as Froebel's Education of Man. The insight thus gained will 
help in any line of work. In the near future, our high-schools as 
well as our normal schools will give young ladies a short course at 
least in Kindergarten work. Mothers will thus be better prepared 
to give wise direction to the activities of their little ones, and pri- 
mary teachers will be better prepared for their work. 

n. Primary Methods of educating Sense-Intuition. — 
These are plans of work adapted to children from six 
to ten years of age. Sensation is now at its best. At 
home, in the street, in the Kindergarten, the children 
have been busy, heretofore, exploring the wonder-world 
around them. It is astonishing to find what a store of 
sense-percepts they have acquired. Somehow, even the 
little ones most unfortunately situated, have attained 
considerable sense-perception culture. But how strik- 
ing the difference between these waifs and the children 
wisely trained from infancy ! The Kindergarten gradu- 
ate enters the primary school with at least two years 
the start of the less fortunate child. The primary 
teacher is compelled to do a good deal of Kindergarten 
work to make up for the loss of wasted years. 



54 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHINa 

1. Acquiring sense-intuitions educates sense-per- 
ception. At six the child hears and sees and tastes and 
smells and touches and weighs almost as perfectly as 
the adult ; but the capability to interpret sensations and 
make exact percepts is still comparatively feeble. This 
is the golden period for storing the mind with ideas of 
things in land, sea, and sky. The efforts put forth in 
gaining these ideas develop sense-perception. 

2. Ohjective experimental work develops sense-per- 
ception. The child reaches sense-intuitions through 
material objects. He continually experiments by sense- 
tests. This apple tastes sour ; this rose smells sweet ; 
this board feels rough. He discriminates the proper- 
ties of objects and assimilates these into notions. Such 
work educates perception. 

3. Doing educates sense-percejjtion. Notice those 
children making mud-pies, mud-dolls, mud-houses. How 
intently they work ! Lead them on to do better things, 
as molding, drawing, making things ; as reading, talk- 
ing, singing ; as handling^ combining^ separating, weigh- 
ing, measuring. You will thus lead the children to put 
forth their best efforts in the best ways. They get 
close to things, and thus gain a mastery over them. 

4. Teaching well primary arithtnetic, primary 
geography, primary reading, and prhnary language 
lessons educates sense-perception. These subjects must 
necessarily be taught objectively. The child per- 
ceives these five apples and these five marbles and 
these five marks ; it thus gains the idea — -five. It per- 
ceives this body of water, and this, and this ; it thus 
gains the idea — lalte. From things to ideas and to 
words is the fundamental law. The child is led to 



METHODS OF EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 55 

perceive things having properties. Out of its own 
experiences, immediate and revived, it makes its num- 
ber notions, and its geography notions, and its notions 
used in reading and language lessons. It builds on the 
rock. It learns how to see and hear and taste and smell 
and touch, so as to gain clear and full notions of things. 
in. Intermediate Methods of educating Sense-Percep- 
tion. — By these we mean methods suited to boys and 
girls. Sensations are now readily transformed into 
sense-ideas. The easy work of childhood does not 
satisfy boys and girls. I^ow, book instruction supple- 
ments oral instruction. Semi-science takes the place of 
miscellaneous object-lessons. 

1. Observing critically educates sense-perception. 
The pupil examines things minutely. He is no longer 
contented with vague ideas, but wants to know all that 
can be known about objects. His penetrating scrutiny 
enables him to gain clear and exhaustive sense-notions, 
and greatly strengthens sense-intuition. 

2. Analyzing and synthesizing material things 
cultivates sense-perception. Intermediate pupils take 
delight in these processes as applied to objects. By 
analyzing and synthesizing objects, they gain exact 
knowledge and deeper insight. The discrimination 
and assimilation required give the very best culture. 

3. The study of objective science develops sense- 
perception. The objective side of geography, botany, 
zoology, etc., calls forth the best efforts of the pupils. 
Technical terms are used sparingly ; exhaustive classifi- 
cation is not attempted ; but a solid foundation is laid 
in the experience of the learner. This work gives a 
higher development to sense-intuition, and prepares the 



56 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

pupil for science-work in the high-school and the col- 
lege. 

4. Ma/iiual training educates jpercejption. Besides 
drawing, molding, etc., boys and girls must be trained 
to use tools and make things. This is an educational 
necessity, and must in some way enter into the educa- 
tion of intermediate pupils. I venture the prediction 
that it will be found best to give this manual training 
in connection with the school-work. Doing educates 
perception because it awakens interest, fosters attention, 
and secures vigorous, sytematic, and persistent exercise 
of this faculty. 

5. Good methods of teaching reading^ language^ 
vocal music, drawing, geography, hotany, zoology, 
educate sense-perception. To the pupil each word in 
the reading or language lesson becomes a jewel glitter- 
ing with meaning. All other lessons prepare for these. 
But details here would hinder and not help. The wise 
teacher will provide herself with a good manual of 
methods in each subject. These manuals supplement 
normal work and are full of helpful suggestions. They 
are working plans. 

6. Practical Suggestions. — Geography, liberally defined, includes 
botany, zoology, geology, and meteorology, as it treats of the earth 
and its products. Sometimes your geography work will be devoted 
for a few weeks to vegetable life and sometimes to animal life. 
For the systematic culture of sense-perception, these are the best 
of all studies. The pupils need no book except the book of 
Nature, but you need for yourself a working manual for each sub- 
ject. 

lY. High-School Methods are plans of work adapted 
to the high-school. Sense-perception is now fully active 



METHODS OF EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 



57 



and observation becomes scientific. The exact and 
penetrating observation demanded by science gives the 
highest culture to sense-perception. Botany, zoology, 
geology, and chemistry are the best studies for this 
culture. Books are now used, but the student must 
still build on his own experience. The laboratory 
method is coming into vogue 
for high-schools and colleges ; 
the student conducts original 
investigations. 

Culture of sense-percej)- 
tion is incidental in the high- 
school. Thought-culture now 
predominates, but to verify 
conclusions the student needs 
constantly to go back to sen- 
sations ; then, to make ad- 
vances, he must continue to 
make new and closer observ- 
ations. Thus the power to 
gain sense-knowledge is not 
only kept vigorous, but is 
steadily improved. 

Oral Work and Book-Work.— At 

first the child learns about things 
by direct insight ; it gains ideas di- 
rectly from material objects. As 
the months multiply, it more and 

more unites revived and immediate experiences in forming its no- 
tions of things ; later, the pupil appropriates the experiences of oth- 
ers. Teacher-experience supplements child-experience : the teacher 
stimulates and guides the efforts of the child, but its ideas are gained 
directly from things. This is oral work. When prepared for it 




58 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

the pupil is led to find out from books. Printed and written words 
now represent to the pupil ideas of things ; the pupil learns from 
the book. This is book-work. 

In the Kindergarten the work is necessarily oral ; in the primary, 
most of the work must be oral ; in the intermediate, book-work be- 
comes more and more prominent. As most pupils do not advance 
beyond the intermediate grade, it is of the utmost importance that 
boys and girls be educated to gain knowledge from books as well as 
from Nature. In the high-school and the college book-work pre- 
dominates, but the pupil tests and verifies the statements of the book 
by his stored experiences and by work in the laboratory. 

Y. Mistakes in Education of Sense-Perception. — Yio- 
lations of educational laws and improper applications of 
educational principles are educational mistakes. Errors 
of this nature are legion. Attention is called to a few 
of the most hurtful : 

1. Society Mistakes — 1. Poor facilities. School 
buildings improperly constructed, imperfectly heated, 
poorly ventilated, and scantily furnished are still the 
rule. In view of the momentous interests involved 
this is a monstrous mistake. Every citizen is deeply in- 
terested in supplying our schools with the best hygienic 
and educational agencies. 

2. Emjployment of incompetent teachers. The chief 
error is the employment of persons without skill as teach- 
ers. They neither understand child-nature nor the nature 
of the subjects to be taught. Surely the time is coming 
when none but trained teachers will be employed. 

11. Hygienic Mistakes. — The teacher does not 
know ; pupils are not trained to hygienic habits ; hygi- 
enic laws are disregarded ; eyes are injured ; bending 
over the desk becomes a habit ; pupils work in vitiated 
air ; invigorating exercises are neglected ; the law of 
frequent change is disregarded ; the tendency is to 



MISTAKES IN EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 59 

physical deterioration. What a revohition is needed! 
Physical vigor conditions mental vigor ; perfect liealth 
conditions perfect sensations ; perfect sensations condi- 
tion perfect sense-percepts. 

III. Teaching Mistakes. — Violations of educational 
principles, or injudicious or unskillful application of 
educational principles, are mistakes of this class. The 
teacher promotes growth when he works in accordance 
with law. 

1. Book-work before oral tvork. The inexperienced child is re- 
quired to study the unmeaning book. This is the old education. 
Unmeaning words, unmeaning definitions, and unmeaning rules en- 
cumber memory. Sense-perception is not exercised and hence is 
not developed. What could be more vicious ? Such education does 
not educate. 

2. Words before ideas. From things the pupil must gain the 
ideas which he embodies in words. This is the law. But visit a 
school kept by a well-meaning ignoramus. What do you observe ? 
No effort is made to lead the pupil to understand ; memory is 
crowded with words, but the child does not know their meaning. 
The multiplication table* is memorized but not learned. Words 
without ideas characterize every exercise. This is the Chinese 
method ; this is the old education. 

3. Concepts before percepts. Percepts are the stuff out of which 
concepts are made. The child perceives this island, and this, and 
this. It perceives likeness and discerns the class notion. The par- 
ticular notion, this island, is a percept, but the general notion, 
island, is a concept. Here we obey law ; this is the new education. 
Under such tuition sense-perception grows. But visit again the an- 
tiquated school. You find the teacher toiling to make pupils who 
have never seen an island define island. Thus it is all day ; but 
we forbear even to enumerate the long catalogue of disheartening 
errors. 

lY. Psychological Mistakes. — These errors result 
from a want of knowledge of the nature of sense-per- 
ception and of its laws of growth. A knowledge of 



60 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

child-nature is now recognized as fundamental in the 
art of teaching : 

1. Second-hayid work. It does not develop perception to read 
and hear about things. Children must see and hear and feel and 
taste and smell for themselves. Perception should be immediately 
appealed to through the senses until conception is easy and accurate 
without it ; it should be developed in breadth, strength, and skill. 
Children must gain sense-ideas directly. 

2. Too much Tiurry. To the mature mind perception seems al- 
most instantaneous ; but the perceptions of the infant are very slow, 
probably as slow as the most difficult process of reasoning later in 
life ; and the teacher does not always realize how long it takes a 
child in its first years of school life to gain a clear perception of an 
object, a picture, or a figure. There must be time for a permanent 
unification, or the perception will not be complete and the activity 
begun will degenerate into forgetfulness. 

3. Failure to discriminate aiid assimilate. Objects so presented 
to the senses as to stimulate a perception of differences are the prop- 
er external occasions of perception, and the differences in the ob- 
jects presented should at first be strongly marked and always clearly 
distinguishable ; but mental perception is a unification. This is an 
act of the mind itself which the teacher can not help the pupil to 
perform. The teacher often says, " You see this or that," and the 
child says, " Yes," when he sees nothing, or perhaps something en- 
tirely different from the thing intended. Such wrong methods 
should be carefully avoided. Differences can be presented in an 
order that will suggest proper comparison and unification, but some 
test of the actual completion of the unification should be sought 
besides the questions that can be answered by yes or no. Tests 
should be continued until it is known with certainty that the unifi- 
cation of perception is real, true, and clear.* 

4. Appealing to a single sense. Much of the poverty of school- 
work results doubtless from this practice. The most common form of 
this error is the exclusive appeal to hearing. Good teaching, whenever 
possible, appeals to sight as well as to hearing. Young children 
need to test things by several of the senses. In teaching the blind 
we must appeal to all the senses except sight ; in teaching the deaf 

* Palmer. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 61 

we must appeal to all the senses except hearing ; in teaching chil- 
dren perfectly endowed we must appeal to all senses. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

At every step the teacher, as well as the student, needs critically 
to interrogate self. The few hints here given, it is hoped, will 
prove helpful. Do I fully understand the nature of sense-percep- 
tion % Am I reasonably familiar with its growth and its activity 
from youth to age ? Am I prepared to promote the growth of this 
power in my pupils'? How can I better qualify myself for this 
work ? Am I thoroughly in earnest ? 

I. Helpful Books. — You will receive most help from educational 
journals, from attending summer normal schools, from visiting 
the best schools, and from contact with the best living teachers. 
The best books are indispensable. As new books are constantly ap- 
pearing, you need to exercise your book-intuition to discriminate 
between gold and dross. We live in an age of superior books. 

II. Letter, — What I know about the education of sense-perception. 
He who tries to help another helps himself. Giving enriches in the 
mind-world. Nothing besides, in my judgment, will help you so 
much as writing a thoughtful letter on the education of sense-per- 
ception to some earnest teacher who will respond in kind. In the 
normal school, in the institute, and in teachers' reading-circles, I 
have found it highly advantageous to have several of these letters 
read before the class. In writing these letters tell what you think. 

HI. Position of Sense-Perception.— In the mental economy where 
do you place sense-intuition ? Why? How is sense-perception re- 
lated to attention f to memory ? to conception ? Distinguish be- 
tween sensation and sense-perception : illustrate. Why do you use 
sense-perception and sense-intuition as synonyms? What do you 
mean by the education of sense- perception ? 

IV. Importance of Sense-Perception Culture. — You may state three 
reasons v/hy you think this culture very important. Illustrate by 
primary reading and primary arithmetic. Why do we call the 
movement initiated by Pestalozzi and others the New Education ? 
What do you mean by the old education ? Do you class the meth- 
ods of Socrates and Plato and Aristotle with the new or the old 
education ? Why 1 

V. Growth of Sense-Perception.— Illustrate. Show that it is the 



62 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACniNG. 

growth not of sensation but of the power to acquire sense-ideas. 
What is the relation between hygiene and sense-perception culture 1 
Why ought every teacher to be familiar with the laws of health f 
Trace the activity of sense-perception from youth to age. 

VI. Laws of Perception-Growth. — What distinction do you make 
between general laws and special laws ? What is meant by an edu- 
cational law ? Illustrate each of the general laws of sense-intuition 
growth. State and explain two special laws. What distinction do 
you make between an educational law and an educational principle. 

VII. Means of Perception-Culture. — Illustrate by the grindstone. 
Explain the meaning of culture value and practical value. Show 
that botany is a better means of sense-perception culture than 
algebra. How is it that the culture value of a study depends so 
much on the method of teaching it ? Illustrate by primary geog- 
raphy. 

VIII. Methods of educating Sense-Perception. — Make the distinc- 
tion between a law, a method, and a device. What do you mean by 
Kindergarten methods? Primary methods ? Intermediate methods'? 
High- school methods ? College methods 1 What question does the 
child ask ? the boy ? the youth 1 the man ? 

1. Kindergarten methods. Who is the natural Kindergartner ? 
Why is it better to place children after the third year in a well-con- 
ducted Kindergarten ? How does trying things educate perception ? 
Explain how doing helps. Illustrate the benefit of observing. What 
advantage will be gained by primary teachers who study a good 
work on Kindergarten ? 

2. Primary methods. What do children of six know 1 Are their 
senses at their best ? Is it a mistake to keep children out of school 
too long? Tell some advantages gained by Kindergarten pupils. 
How do primary differ from Kindergarten methods? Show that 
acquiring sense-percepts educates perception. Show how observing 
promotes the growth of sense-intuition. Prove that doing educates 
perception. Tell how you will so teach the following branches as 
to educate sense-intuition: Primary arithmetic, primary reading, 
primary language-lessons, primary science-lessons. 

3. Intermediate methods. How do intermediate differ from pri- 
mary methods ? Show that objective analysis and synthesis culti- 
vate perception. Plow will you so teach zoology as to educate sense- 
intuition ? Will manual training help ? Would you make this a 
part of the school-work I 



RELATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 63 

4. High-school methods. Show the difference between interme- 
diate and high-school methods. Why is sense-perception culture 
made incidental in the high-school ? What do you mean by obser- 
vation now being scientific ? Illustrate by botany, by chemistry, by 
physiology. 

IX. Oral and Book "Work. — Why must the work be mostly oral in 
the Kindergarten and the primary school % Show the folly of ex- 
clusive book-work in the intermediate school. Why should inter- 
mediate pupils be carefully trained to gain knowledge from books ? 
Which do you consider the greater educational power in the high- 
school and college, books or the living teacher ? 

X. Mistakes in educating Sense-Perception. — What are education- 
al mistakes'? Mention some society mistakes; some hygienic mis- 
takes ; some teaching mistakes ; some psychological mistakes. 



CHAPTER lY. 

EDUCATION OF SELF-PEKCEPTION. 

By this is meant the development of the capabihty 
to gain self-knowledge. I am aware of loving my friend. 
Out of my love-awareness, immediate and revived, I 
form the notion this love. The notion of this act of 
love is a self-idea. My native energy to gain self -ideas 
is self -perception. As sense-perception is the power of 
direct insight into the matter-world, so self-perception is 
the power of direct insight into the mind-world. Con- 
sciousness is simply awareness of self doing various acts. 
Self as conscious-intuition coins awareness into ideas. 

I. Relations and Definitions. 

Awareness, like sensation, is fundamental in the 
mental economy. Wherever we find mind we find 
sensation and awareness. A brute is in some degree 



64: 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



aware of its sensations ; a person is not only aware of 
liis sensations, but also of self feeling these sensations. 

1. Ifental Phenomena, 
— I think ; I perceive my- 
self thinking. I grieve ; I 
perceive myself grieving. 
I choose ; I perceive myself 

ypHif^y choosing. I am aware of 

\l^^ M^ rW myself acting. Phenomena 

are appearances. My men- 
tal acts appear to me, and 
hence are termed mental 
phenomena. Self is aware 
of his own acts as his own ; 
awareness can go no further. 

2. Self-jyerception. This 
is the native energy to gain 
self-ideas. I assimilate my 
avv^areness into self-notions 
just as I assimilate my sen- 
sations into sense-notions. 
Self -perception is known as 
self-intuition, self -conscious- 
ness, inner-perception, introspection, and conscious-per- 
ception. 

3. Self-jyercepts are notions of particular mental 
acts. They are the ideas self gains intuitively of his 
knowing, feeling, and willing. I desire to visit Paris. 
The notion I gain of self feeling this desire is a 
self-idea, a self-intuition, a self-percept. Notions of 
individual mental acts and notions of the capabilities 




IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURE OF SELF-PERCEPTION. C5 

to do these acts, gained by introspection, are self-per- 
cepts. 

4. Education ofself-jperception is tlie development 
of the power to gain self-ideas. The child is dimly 
aware, but the illuminated mental economy is an open 
book to the man. Education makes the difference be- 
tween the feeble, glimmering consciousness of our early 
years and the clear self-consciousness of maturity. 

5. Relations of self -per ce])tion. Attention, mem- 
ory, and awareness enter into every distinct mental act, 
and hence are called our general mental powers. Thus 
self is able to weave into unity the experience of a long 
life. I perceive the storm ; I attend, recall other storms, 
feel emotions of sublimity, think of God, am aware of 
each of these acts. Asleep or awake, I am aware in some 
degree of my own acts. Somehow I assimilate my aware- 
ness, hnmediate and recalled, into self-notions. These 
are acts of self -perceiving. I gain self-knowledge. The 
capability to gain self-percepts is self-perception. 

II. Importance of the Culture of Self-Perception. 

Self-knowledge is the most valuable knowledge. 
^^ Know thy self ^^ is the imperative of the ages. A self 
is a microcosm^ a miniature universe. A knowledge of 
the microcosm is the key that opens to us the wonders 
of the macrocosm, the infinite universe. Each self is a 
type of the race. To one ignorant of self the universe 
is a maze without a plan. We explore the earth and 
the heavens, but leave the mind- world unexplored. How 
little most persons know of themselves! Our schools 
and colleges send out their graduates rich in sense- 
knowledge but poor in self-knowledge. Even teachers, 
5 



m 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



otherwise intelligent, do not appreciate the connection 
of psychology with their work. ISTot less sense-knowl- 
edge but more self-knowledge is the 
great educational need. A few rea- 
sons for the culture of self-percep- 
tion are presented in brief. You 
will expand and illustrate these ar- 
guments : 

1. Insight into character. Self-knowl- 
edge is the key to human nature. Knowl- 
edge of self makes it possible to understand 
and appreciate noble characters. I examine 
myself; I love truth and right and ail nob'e 
traits, and I grieve when I do wrong. I put 
myself in the place of my friend. I appre- 
ciate his noble traits and sympathize with 
him when he goes wrong. I read history, 
and rejoice in all that is great in human 
character and human achievement. 

2. Self-knowledge opens to us the treas- 
ures of history and literature. Thucydides 
and Macaulay are without interest and with- 
out meaning to one ignorant of self. The 
Iliad and Paradise Lost have no charms for 
one unacquainted with self. How can I un- 
derstand Homer and Shakespeare and Dick- 
ens if I do not understand myself ? 

3. Sociology, philosophy, and theology 
give up their secrets to one who knows him- 
self. I am a creative first cau'se ; a free, self- 
determining, responsible person. I can think 
of God as the infinite creative first cause, the 
infinite will, the infinite person. I can think 
of free, self-determining persons, responsible 
to law, constituting society, immortal. 

4. Cultured self-perception characterizes the great man. The 
brute gains no self-ideas. The self-notions of the unreflecting masses 



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GROWTH OF SELF-PERCEPTION. C7 

are few and crude. Here and there we find persons who know the 
mind-world better than any one knows the matter-world. These are 
the mighty ones — the Shakespeares, the Aristotles, and the Kants. 
In proportion as we become acquainted with ourselves, we rise to the 
digni*^y of a grand manhood. 

5. Self -percept ion is the source of self-knowledge. We are de- 
pendent on self-intuition for our ideas of the acts and the activities 
of self. A being not endowed with self-consciousness has no mind- 
world. We are as dependent on awareness for self-knowledge as on 
sensation for sense-knowledge. The culture of self-consciousness 
opens to us a world infinitely grander than the sense- world. '' There 
is nothing great but mind." 

III. Growth of Self-Perception. 

The feeble awareness of the child becomes the clear, 
penetrating self -consciousness of the man. This becom- 
ings this gradual process is the growth of consciousness. 
Education is the promotion of this growth. The self- 
notions of the child are few and crude; but the self- 
notions of the educated man are many and like polished 
gems. 

1. Childhood. Very early the infant feels sensations and is 
dimly aware. How early it assimilates its sensations into crude 
sense-notions, and its awareness into rudimentary self-notions, we 
can not know. At first the child is aware of the objects perceived, 
and nothing more. As early as the third year the child uses such 
words intelligently as 7, 7ne, my. Even earlier it says mine. It must 
perceive dimly self knowing, feeling, and willing. But few children 
give evidence of distinct self-consciousness earlier than the fourth 
year. From this period the growth is continuous ; but self-percep- 
tion acts feebly for some years. Its feeble activity during childhood 
indicates that its culture should be incidental (study cut, p. 66). 

2. Boyhood and girlhood. Awareness of objective knowing is 
quite active during this period. Now is the time to fix right habits 
and good manners. We now educate our pupils to attain certainty 
in their mental experiences. 

3. Youth. The youth feels irrepressible desires to explore the 



68 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

inner world. Now self-intuition becomes active and penetrating, 
Eeal self-knowledge becomes intensely interesting. This is peculiarly 
the fitting period for the culture of self-perception. As the child 
gains an experimental knowledge of the matter-world, so the youth 
gains an experimental knowledge of the mind-world. This is the 
golden period for self-perception culture. Educators begin to real- 
ize this fact. Within one or two decades geometry, botany, and ele- 
mentary psychology will be studied, side by side, in all our high 
schools. 

4. Manhood. During early manhood self-intuition becomes 
fully active. It must be that this capability grows more and more 
powerful as the years advance. The octogenarian gazes with in- 
creasing wonder into the profounder depths of the spirit-world. 

lY. Laws of Self-Perception Growth. 

The uniform ways in which self must act in order to 
the development of consciousness are the laws of self- 
perception growth. Because these laws are fundamental 
and guiding educational truths they are called educa- 
tional principles. 

I. General Laws. — These look to the growth of all 
the mental powders, but need to be stated in terms of 
each. Wliat are the great laws of self-intuition growth ? 

1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in acquiring 
self-knowledge educates self-intuition. As the acquisi- 
tion of sense-percepts develops sense-percej^tion, so tke 
acquisition of self -percepts develops self -perception. 

2. Law of means. Subjective work educates self- 
intuition. I gain self-knowledge only through perceiv- 
ing myself acting. Studies requiring constant intro- 
spection are the best means for educating self-percep- 
tion. 

3. Law of m^tJiod. Plans of work which call self- 
perception into lawful, systematic, vigorous, and per- 



LAWS OF SELF-PERCEPTION GROWTH. 69 

sistent activity, educate tins power. Effort under guid- 
ance educates. 

II. Special Laws. — These apply particularly to the development 
of self-intuition. The wise educator will look well to the special as 
well as to the general laws. 

1. Laiv of the hrain. A sound brain conditions perfect aware- 
ness as well as perfect sensations. We accept this fact ; no one can 
explain it. Vigorous health and clear self-consciousness are inti- 
mately related. Poor health may account for much of the con- 
fusion and error in the mind-world. Even insanity is primarily an 
affection of the physical organism. 

3. Law of origin. Self-perception becomes active first in con- 
nection with sense-perceiving. The child is aware of its sense-expe- 
riences. Slowly it becomes aware of its memory-experiences, and its 
emotional experiences, and its thought-experiences. 

3. Law of groivth. Self-perception develops slowly. From 
obscure to clear consciousness is the natural order. Indistinct aware- 
ness becomes distinct awareness. Glimmering self-percepts become 
clear self-percepts. Doubts become certainties. From our own 
experiences we learn to be very patient with our pupils. Here we 
need to hasten leisurely. Young persons gain self-ideas slowly. 

4. Law of ascent. The mind ascends through self-percepts to 
self-concepts. I think memory-experiences into the concept, mem- 
ory. Through particular self-notions the mind ascends to general 
self-notions. 

5. Laiv of conserving mental energy. Mental energy is con- 
served by developing awareness into clear-cut self-percepts. The 
failure to do this is a great source of waste in the mental economy. 
*' The waste of mental energy from failing to develop a perfect con- 
sciousness, and from the consequent degradation and dissipation of 
force, is the most serious loss to which the mind is subject in its 
struggle to gain power. When we consider the time spent in study- 
ing truths which are not incorporated with the mind, we can see 
something of the fearful waste of energy that comes from making 
the aim so narrow that effort is dwarfed, and actual achievement 
loses its value. The loss comes from ceasing to fight before the 
battle is finished." * 

* Palmer. 



70 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Y. Means of educating Self-Perception. 

As the mastering of tlie matter-world educates sense- 
perception, so the mastering of the mind-world educates 
self-perception. Each mental act is an event. Self 
stands face to face with his own acts, and perceives 
himself knowing, feehng, and willing. Man looks 
within as well as without, and gains self-knowledge as 
well as sense-knowledge. Each mental act may hecome 
the means of self-perception culture. Any study which 
quickens self-observation and transforms awareness into 
self-percepts may be made the means for self-perception 
culture. 

L For Children. — The work during this period is incidental and 
informal. We do not even mention self, but we lead the child to 
gain some self-ideas in connection with its daily work. 

1. Certainty in self-perceiving and in remembering. " Are 
you sure ? " is the best question. Yes or no will not answer this 
question. The teacher must satisfy himself that the child is really 
certain. 

2. Truthfulness in telling. There is no better means than this 
for the culture of self-intuition. 

3. Forming right habits. This is an admirable means for edu- 
cating self-perception. Good manners and morals are the results of 
the formation of good habits. The child contemplates his own acts 
and learns to be careful. 

IL For Boys and G-irls. — Awareness is now quite active, so far as 
the sense-world is concerned. Gaining self-ideas becomes more and 
more interesting. The means for self-perception culture are various 
and abundant. 

1. The means for educating child self-perception may also be 
used here, but the field is wider and much more can be done. 

2. Self-examination. Did I intend to do so ? Do I understand 
this I Was that what happened ? Why do I desire to go % 

3. Juvenile literature is a most important means. The pupils 
now begin to understand the experiences of others. 



METHODS OF DEVELOPING SELF-PERCEPTION. 71 

III. For Youths. — All lines of work may now be made the means 
of educating self-iutuition. 

1. Psychology easily ranks highest. Introspection characterizes 
this study. Self-percepts become as definite as sense-percepts, and 
are thought into concepts. The mental powers are defined and 
grouped. The youth analyzes his own mental acts with more delight 
than he feels when analyzing flowers. Soon he discovers the laws 
of the mental economy and the laws of mental growth. 

2. Ethics has a high value. Character-building develops the 
power to gain self-knowledge. Self-examination with the view to 
better living gives a deep insight into the mind-world. 

3. Literature is of great value. The Bible is incomparably the 
best book for this purpose. I place Shakespeare next. But the 
means of self-intuition culture are boundless— life, history, litera- 
ture, art. 

YI. Methods of developing Self-Perception. 

Distinctness, certainty, unity ; these are cardinal in 
education. Self is aware of his acts as his, but there 
must be sunlight clearness. Each act must stand out 
distinctly, and doubt must give place to certainty. 
Teacher, have you developed your power of introspec- 
tion ? Then you are prepared to lead others. You will 
not need many suggestions. "Work on in the light of 
your own experience. 

I. Kindergarten, Primary, and Intermediate Methods, 
— Good teaching educates self -perception as w^ell as sense- 
perception. So blended is self-perceiving with other 
mental acts that discrimination is not always easy ; we 
think of our acts, but not of self doing these acts. The 
specific culture of consciousness, however, must be kept 
ever in view. AYe can hardly begin these lessons too 
early, but from the nature of the work all details must be 
left to the teacher. A few general suggestions are all that 
is desirable. Work out your own plans in your own way. 



72 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

1. Incidental, At this earlj stage you give no sepa- 
rate lessons to educate self-perception, but you do this 
incidentally in connection with all lessons. You will 
need to guard against all expressions which the child is 
not prepared to understand. 

2. Accuracy. Lead the pupil to observe accurately. 
Do you really see and hear and smell and taste and touch 
these things ? Are you sure the clock struck four ? 
The ways are endless of training to accuracy, in observ- 
ing, in recalling, and in thinking. 

3. Distinct memories. Lead your pupil to recall 
precisely what occurred. "Was that what happened? 
Was that what I saw ? Without thinking of it, the child 
clearly perceives itself remembering. You lead the 
child to tell just what it saw, or heard, or did, or read. 

4. Memory and jyJiantasy . Lead your pupils clearly 
to distinguish memories and phantasms. Children oft- 
en fail to do this. Much care is needed here. Self as 
memory recalls actual experiences ; self as phantasy 
modifies his experiences. The erroneous reports of chil- 
dren are often the unintentional blending of memories 
and phantasies rather than intentional falsehoods. 

5. Truthfulness. The habit of truthfulness compels 
introspection. From infancy to age it is of the ut- 
most importance to have the habit of truthfulness in- 
grained. 

6. Self -examination. Teach your pupils to question 
themselves. Inculcate honesty here. What did I mean ? 
What did I intend ? Why do I feel guilty ? What did 
I do ? These questions become more and more search- 
ing from year to year. Higher ideals and better living 
must be the aim. 



METHODS OF DEVELOPING SELF-PERCEPTION. 73 

7. Stories and Literature. Lead pupils to put them- 
selves in the place of others. What would you have 
done % What would you have said ? How would you 
have felt? How w^ould you have acted? The wise 
teacher will assiduously cultivate this fruitful field so 
rich in helpful experiences. 

8. Manners and Morals, Lead your pupils to form 
all right habits. Careful training in right manners and 
morals develops self-perception. You do not need fur- 
ther suggestions. You will work out your own methods 
in your own ways. You will lead your pupils to gain 
self-knowledge as well as sense-knowledge. 

II. Advanced Methods. — These are plans of work 
adapted to the high-school and college periods. Self- 
perception is now decidedly active, and seems to reach 
full activity about the twentieth year. How may this 
power be grandly developed ? The answer must always 
be, hy mastering the niind-ioorld. 

1. Gaining self-percepts educates self -perception. 
The youth makes, out of his self-experiences, definite 
self-percepts. Awareness, like sensation, is fundamental 
in the mental economy. I am dependent on conscious- 
ness for all I know or can know of the mind-world. 
Making sense-percepts out of sensations educates sense- 
perception ; making self -percepts out of awareness ed- 
ucates self-perception. We do not educate sensation 
and awareness, but the capabilities to gain ideas through 
these experiences. Introspection is the capability to 
gain self-knowledge. Efi^orts in gaining self-percepts 
develop self-perception. 

2. The study of self educates self perception. What 
am I ? What can I do ? AYith what capabilities am I 



74 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

endowed ? How may I make the most of myself ? I 
know that I am I ; on this rock I take my stand. I 
perceive a church and gain tlie self-percept, this per- 
ceiving^ at the same time that I gain the sense-percept, 
this church. I find tliat I have the capabilities to gain 
sense-ideas and self-ideas, and I learn to call my notions 
of these capabilities sense-perception and self -perception. 
Thus, step by step, I explore the self -world. My power 
of introspection becomes more and more vigorous as I 
make greater and greater efforts to understand myself. 
My self-ideas become as clear and well-defined as my 
sense-ideas. The mind-world gives up to me its secrets. 
3. Pitt yourself in his lylace. I consider this one 
of the very best ways of cultivating self -perception. To 
the teacher this habit is invaluable Every year I spend 
a few days in some school as a pupil. I find that this 
experience helps me to put myself more completely in 
the place of my students, and thus I am better prepared 
to lead them in their investigations. This method of 
studying the mind- world may be used constantly. You 
observe the words, looks, and acts of the lover : put 
yourself in his place and you can understand him. Hu- 
man nature is the same everywhere. Each man repre- 
sents all men. Thus you have the key to all human na- 
ture. You can interpret history, and literature, and art. 
Efforts to understand others educate self-perception, 
and the knowledge gained is of the highest practical 
value. You can now look at things from the standpoint 
of your pupils. You literally take your place beside 
them and lead them in their work. You can now view 
history from the standpoint of the actors. You can now 
contemplate the plays of Shakespeare from the stand- 



METHODS OF DEVELOPING SELF-PERCEPTION. 75 

point of the author. You can now admire the Greek 
Slave from the standpoint of the artist. 

4. Vicarious experieiices help. One becomes a men- 
tal millionaire by appropriating the experiences and 
achievements of others. This is legitimate. Each per- 
son is entitled to the achievements of the race. But 
the foundation must be laid in self-experience. As I 
need sense-experience to be able to appropriate the 
achievements of scientists, so I must have self-knowledge 
to be able to appropriate the self-experiences of others. 
I find that I am at all times, whether sleeping or waking, 
active and in some degree aware of my acts. What is 
your experience ? What is the experience of the race ? 
Hamilton had himself awakened at various times ; he 
tells us that self was always found busy and aware. Self- 
intuition is cultivated by comparing our own with the 
conscious experience of others. In literature we study 
the conscious experience of writers. AYith these experi- 
ences we compare our similar experiences. We are en- 
riched by the experiences of the most gifted. Our hasty 
inferences are corrected by the common experiences of 
mankind. Such efforts cultivate self -perception and ren- 
der the human mind an open book. The insight gained 
by such efforts is invaluable in practical life. Thus the 
individual becomes as wise as the race. 

5. Self-examination cidtvvates self perception. From 
childhood to age the habit of self-examination is of great 
benefit. As the years go by, self -inspection becomes sys- 
tematic and penetrating. I count the practice of self- 
scrutiny invaluable. As at the close of the day the busi- 
ness man posts his books, so the wise character-builder 
at the close of each day carefully examines his own acts. 



76 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

"We do most for our pupils when we lead them to form 
the habit of careful and systematic self-examination. 
I have not found formulated schemes advantageous. 
Yery soon they are dropped. Each one will 6])on- 
taneously form a plan best suited to his wants. We 
suggest lines of self-examination, but leave each one to 
pursue his own method. Self -betterment is the inspir- 
ing motive. We strive for perfection. Each day we 
try to advance. 

6. Lead the learners to assimilate awareness into 
self-hioidedge. Pushing awareness into definite, clear, 
distinct, positive self-knowledge does most to educate 
self -perception. Failure to do this accounts for the 
haziness of the self-knowledge of most people. Here and 
everywhere complete success is reached by working on 
until the victory is won. First, we must attend so closely 
to our acts that our self-perception will be complete. 
Secondly, we must compare the results we reach with 
the results reached by others. Our self-knowledge will 
thus become broad, exact, clear, positive. 

YII. Mistakes in educating Self-Perception. 

A chief mistake is its utter neglect. Even profes- 
sional teachers are often poor in self-knowledge. Many 
teachers make no intelligent effort to increase the self- 
knowledge of their pupils. 

1. Misconceptions. The capability to make self- 
ideas out of awareness is as certainly a native energy of 
self as gravity is a native energy of matter. Some 
think of each mental act as a state of awareness. This 
misconception, as I think, confuses and leads to the neg- 
lect of self -perception culture. The gain would surely 



MISTAKES IN EDUCATING SELF-PERCEPTION. 77 

be immense could tlie expressions states of mind and 
states of consciousness be effaced and acts of mind be 
substituted. To think of memory and reason and hope 
as states of consciousness does not help, but hurts. 
Nothing is added, nothing is gained. The student 
simply wonders what can be meant by states. Each 
mental act is complex, but the native energies to do men- 
tal acts are simple. It is because all our mental powers 
supplement each, that mental acts are complex. Much is 
gained and nothing is lost by thinking of consciousness 
as our capability to perceive self -remembering, reason- 
ing, hoping. 

2. Haziness, The self-knowledge of teacher as well 
as pupil is often shadowy, and self -ideas are vague. A 
clear-cut self-percept is more valuable than diamonds. 
What an inexcusable and incalculable waste to stop short 
of perfect self -ideas ! Ask a score of well-informed per- 
sons to give you the distinction between conscience and 
consciousness^ or between 2i percept and a concept ; you 
will be astonished to hear their crude and erroneous 
answers. You must begin with the children. Clear 
self-knowledge comes of culture. 

3. Second-hand selfknowing. ISTothing develops 
self perception but actual self -perceiving. An hour of 
real introspection is more valuable than weeks of sec- 
ond-hand work. All knowledge of self must begin in 
self-experience. Many delude themselves into think- 
ing they are studying self, when they are studying what 
somebody says about self. Direct self-knowledge is 
fundamental. You must perceive yourself acting, and 
must coin your awareness into self -ideas. 

4. Children sometimes hecome too suhjective, " She 



78 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

never plays," a mother observed about her daughter, 
" but she reads so much and asks such strange ques- 
tions." This indicates an abnormal condition. The 
healthy child lives with nature, likes to play, likes to see 
things, and is as happy as a bird. The old little child is 
a sad object. Some one has blundered. 

5. Egotistic awareness is a inisfortxme. The big / 
shuts out real self-knowledge and prevents a person thus 
afflicted from seeing himself as others see him. Inordi- 
nate consciousness of self produces timidity as well as 
egotism. You will study to lead your pupils to think 
of self-acts and self-ideas, but not of self. True self- 
knowledge makes one modest and courageous. 

6. A morhid ethical consciousness is a great mis- 
fortiine. Why eternally worry over your follies ? Do 
the best you can, and rejoice always. It is wrong and 
foolish to make yourself miserable brooding over your 
sins. Ask, and you will be forgiven. Go and sin no 
more. Make your life useful, and you will be happy. 

7. Failure to develop consciousness into definite^ 
clear ^ and positive intuitive-ideas is a fundamental edu- 
cational error. Mental energy is thus wasted, and the 
person becomes a dreamer. No mistake in education 
needs to be more carefully guarded against. 

8. Self-concepts before self-percepts. This mistake 
is even more common than that of sense-concepts before 
sense-percepts. It is the violation of the law of ascent. 
We must ascend through particular notions to general 
notions. My notion of this memory is a self-percept, 
but my notion of my capability to recall my past acqui- 
sitions is a self-concept. 

9. Sicbstituting our own awareness for that of the 



SUGGESTIYE STUDY-HINTS. 79 

learner. We thus read into cliild-mind what is not 
there, but in our own minds. Just here we find the 
source of tlie failure of tlie teacher to understand the 
child. The confusion of his own standpoint with that 
of the mental fact about which he is making a report, 
Prof. James considers the great fallacy of the psycholo- 
gist. In studying comparative psychology we fall into 
the same error by reading into the brute-mind what is 
not there, but in our own minds. In studying the Bible 
many read into it what is not there, but in their own 
minds. 

SUGGESTIYE STUDY-HINTS. 

I. Helpful Books. — The New Testament is incomparably the best. 
Each one here sees self reflected back as in a mirror. Most writers 
have exhausted their energies in discussing sense-perception and its 
education. However, by substituting self-intuition for sense-intui- 
tion, and the mind-world for the matter-world, the best suggestions 
looking to the culture of outer-perception may be applied in the 
culture of inner-perception. 

II. Letters — Self-Perception Culture. — You must look within. How 
have you managed to gain self-knowledge ? How will you lead your 
pupils to explain the mind- world? Write such thoughts as will 
prove suggestive to your friend. Be careful to use no word or ex- 
pression the meaning of which is not clear to you, 

III. Awareness and Sensation. — Show that self is as dependent on 
awareness for a knowledge of the mind-world as upon sensation for 
a knowledge of the matter-world. Illustrate fully and clearly the 
meaning of these terms. 

IV. Awareness and Self-Perception. — Show that self makes his self- 
ideas out of his awareness as he makes his sense-ideas out of his 
sensations. Analyze five acts of self-perception. 

V. Education of Self-Perception. — Define and illustrate. Give sev- 
eral reasons why you deem the culture of this power of great impor- 
tance. Is it as important to develop the power of internal observa- 
tion as the power of external observation ? 

VI. Laws of Self-Perception Growth. — State the three general edu- 



80 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

cational laws in terras of consciousness. Give three special laws 
which you think of great practical value. 

VII. Means of educating Self-Perception. — What means do you es- 
teem valuable in childhood ? in boyhood ? in youth ? Why do you 
give psychology the first place? When is the golden period to study 
elementary psychology ? Why should it have a place in every high 
school? Do you consider ethics a valuable means for this culture? 

VIII. Methods of educating Self-Perception. — State the distinction 
you make between a law, a device, and a method. Define Kindergar- 
ten, primary, intermediate, and high-school methods in terms of self- 
perception. Can you transmute methods of sense-perception culture 
into methods of self-perception culture ? Try this. Show your plans 
of work in educating'self-intuition in childhood; in boyhood; in youth. 

IX. Mistakes in educating Self-Perception. — How do you account 
for the astonishing neglect of self-perception culture? Why do 
most persons count sense-knowledge more valuable than self-knowl- 
edge ? Why do you prefer the expression, acts of self, to the expres- 
sions, states of mind and states of consciousyiess ? How do you 
account for the haziness of the self-knowledge of most persons? 
Why is it a mistake to trust to second-hand self-knowledge? May 
the child become too subjective ? State your remedy. May young 
people become too self-conscious ? What remedy do you suggest ? 
Is it possible to gain sense-concepts before gaining sense-percepts I 
Can you gain self-concepts before acquiring self-percepts? Give 
several illustrations. 



CHAPTER Y. 

EDUCATION OF NECESSARY-PERCEPTION. 

By this is meant the development of the power to 
gain necessary-knowledge. Education makes the differ- 
ence between the crude, undefined necessary notions of 
the uneducated, and the clear, well-defined necessary no- 
tions of the philosopher.* 

* Read Chapter VIII, Elementary Psychology ; also, Necessarv-hitui 
tion, p. 34. 



EDUCATION OF NECESSARY-PERCEPTION. 



81 



I. Place of Necessary-Perception in the Mental Econ- 
omy. — Necessary-intuition is fundamental. Self as sense- 
intuition gains sense-knowl- 
edge and nothing more. 
Self as conscious-intuition 
gains self - knowledge and 
nothing more. A being not 
endowed with necessary- 
perception must remain for- 
ever ignorant of the world 
of necessary-realities. H^ec- 
essary-intuition is the native 
energy of self to exjyerience 
necessary realities. We 
make our sense-ideas out of 
our sensations and our self- 
ideas out of our awareness ; 
but we stand face to face 
with necessary-realities and 
gain necessary-ideas by di- 
rect insight. 

II. Definitions. — "We 
need to tread softly here. 
The mightiest thinkers still 

falter on this battle-ground of thought. We must each 
strive to grasp these profound truths as best we can. 

1. Necessary-Tealities are the actualities that make 
possible the physical and the spiritual universes. These 
realities are termed noumena / they underlie phenome- 
na and make things possible. Space, time, cause, mat- 
ter, mind, truth, beauty, duty, are noumena. Each is a 
necessary reality ; each must be, that things may be. 




82 APPLIED P3YCU0L0GY AND TEACHING. 

2. I^ecessary-percepts are concrete notions of nec- 
essary-realities. Because we gain these notions by direct 
insight they are called necessary-percepts or necessary- 
intuitions. Like all percepts, our necessary-notions are 
concrete notions. 

3. Necessary-truths are necessary-percepts general- 
ized. Socrates died from drinking the poison. That 
this effect had this cause is an intuitive-percept ; but 
that every effect is caused is an intuitive truth. We 
gain necessary-percepts intuitively, but we infer neces- 
sary-truths. Axioms are necessary-truths. 

4. Necessary-perception is the capability of self to 
gain necessary-ideas. We are endowed with the power 
of direct insight into the world of necessary-realities. 
We perceive necessary-realities ; we intuitively gain ne- 
cessary-ideas. Necessary-perception is self perceiving 
necessary-realities. 

5. The Education of necessary -perception^ is the de- 
velopment of the power to gain well-defined necessary- 
notions. All men experience necessary-realities, but the 
vague, unworded necessary-ideas of children and unedu- 
cated persons are vastly different from the necessary-no- 
tions of the educated. Necessary-truths are the pillars 
of science and philosophy. 

III. Importance of educating Necessary-Perception. — 
Necessary-intuition is a native energy of self, susceptible 
of distinct and unlimited culture. Necessary-knowledge 
is the granite of the thought-world. The mathemati- 
cian builds on necessary-truths. The scientist builds se- 
curely when he builds on this granite. The philosopher 
is grander than other men because more than others he 
deals with these sublime truths. 



EDUCATION OF NECESSARY-PERCEPTION. 83 

IV. Growth of Necessary-Perception. — Every one has 
the time-idea and the space-idea and the cause-idea. 
How early the child dimly perceives necessary-realities 
we can not know, but it is certain that child-notions of 
necessary-realities are dim and vague. The power to 
gain necessary-ideas acts feebly in childhood, becomes 
more active in boyhood and girlhood, and becomes vig- 
orous in youth. It is the latest of all the faculties to 
reach full activity. While all persons perceive neces- 
sary-realities, only the few gain clear and well-defined 
necessary-ideas and the power to use them. Most of us 
are so interested in phenomena that we fail to investi- 
gate notimena. 

Y. Laws of Necessary-Perception Growth. — (1.) Well- 
directed effort in gaining necessary-ideas educates neces- 
sary-perception. (2.) The mind must ascend through 
necessary-percepts to necessary-concepts and necessary- 
truths. 

YI. Means of educating Necessary-Perception. — Ne- 
cessary-realities environ us and furnish the means of ed- 
ucating necessary-perception. This space, this time, this 
cause, this truth, this beauty, this duty, are perceived as 
readily as sense-objects. Gaining distinct ideas of these 
realities develops necessary-intuition. Studies involv- 
ing the acquisition and constant use of necessary truths 
are excellent for the cultivation of this faculty. Ge- 
ometry, ethics, logic, and philosophy are the best. The 
wise teacher will find something in each lesson to fa- 
miliarize the learner with necessary-realities. Phenom- 
ena touch noicmena at every point. 

YII. Methods of educating Necessary-Intuition.^ 
Mastering the world of necessary-realities educates ne- 



84 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

cessary-intuition. All have vague notions of these re- 
alities ; but, to make these notions clear and definite, and 
to state and use them skillfully, are only possible to edu- 
cated persons. Because most persons stop short of this, 
they are incapable of effective thinking. People wander 
after every delusion because they fail to master the 
world of necessary-realities. They build on the sand. 

1. Lead the learner to jperceive things having prop- 
erties. Save him from that most hurtful delusion that 
he can know only phenomena. We know matter as ex- 
tended. "We know material substance as certainly as we 
know material phenomena. We know directly things 
in their relations to space and time and cause. 

2. Lead the learner to perceive self doing things. 
Save him from the no-soul delusion. We know the 
thinker as certainly as we know the thinking. Self 
loves, self reasons, self chooses. Back of these acts we 
perceive the self that does the acts. 

3. Lead the learner to huild mi axioms, l^ecessary- 
ideas are fundamental. The learner thinks these ideas 
into necessary-truths. In geometry, at every step, he 
necessarily builds on axioms. Lead him so to build in 
all his studies. This is the climax of educational meth- 
ods. This is building on the rock. 



CULTURE OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 85 

CHAPTER YI. 

CULTUKE OF THE PEKCEPTIVE POWERS. 

Tpiese are our native energies of direct insight. Self 
is endowed with capabilities to look immediately into 
the world of matter, the world of mind, and the world 
of necessary-realities. Exploring and mastering these 
worlds cultivate our perceptive powers. 

Terms used. — Familiar and expressive terms are the 
best ; but precision is necessary. In some cases we must 
use technical terms for the sake of clearness. As a rule, 
it is best to use easy terms. We can then better under- 
stand ourselves and each other. 

1. Perceptive — intuitive — acquisitive — presentative 
are the common terms applied to our capabilities to 
know immediately. Each of these terms is used to ex- 
press the same meaning. They are the general terms 
used to designate the powers of self to gain particular 
notions by direct insight. Each term includes sense- 
perceiving and self -perceiving and necessary-perceiving. 

2. Percept or intuition is a specific name for a par- 
ticular notion. Percepts or intuitions are concrete no- 
tions of material objects, of mental energies and acts, 
and of necessary-realities. These notions may be sense- 
percepts, self-percepts, or necessary-percepts. When I 
think of percepts or of intuitions^ I think of sense-ideas, 
self -ideas, and necessary-ideas. When I wish to be spe- 
cific, however, I designate my concrete notions as sense- 
intuitions, as self-intuitions, and as necessary-intuitions. 

II. Perceptive-Knowing is Immediate-Knowing. — The 
practical realization of this fundamental fact has revolu- 



86 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

lionized our methods of teaching. From the Kinder- 
garten to the university, we lead the learner to acquire 
directly sense-knowledge, self-knowledge, and necessary- 
knowledge. From childhood to manhood we lead the 
learner to build on his own experiences. 

1. The learner must actually do the perceiving. The 
pupil and not the teacher must gain the percepts. This 
is vital. The art of teaching begins with skillfully lead- 
ing the learner to look directly into the three elementary 
worlds and thus gain immediate and clear-cut notions of 
noumena as well as phenomena. 

2. The knowing must not he second-hand. The 
temptation to substitute book and teacher experience for 
pupil-experience is greater than some teachers can with- 
stand. It is much less trouble and requires much less 
time, but it does not educate. They will build on the 
sand. At any cost of toil and time you must lead the 
learner to gain his percepts for himself. The knowing 
must be first-hand. The experience must be the pupil's. 

3. Imagination must not take the place of ex])erience» 
The learner must really perceive. Imagination supple- 
ments experience, but can not take its place. The 
learner must taste the sugar sweet, and be aware of self 
rejoicing and perceive this space. Be not deceived. 
Real experience is fundamental. 

III. Habits of Exact Observation. — These habits 
should be formed in early life. Discriminations and 
assimilations should be as exact as possible, and this ex- 
actness should be rooted into habit. 

1. Sense-observation. Great attention should be 
given to educating learners to gain exact sense-ideas 
through each sense. The power and accuracy of men> 



CULTURE OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 87 

ory, imagination, and thought depend largely upon the 
extent and exactness of our sense-knowledge. In prac- 
tical life such culture is invaluable. Merchants must 
be able to test the quality of their goods by their senses. 
Mechanics, cooks, artists, poets, need to have the power 
of exact sense-observation well developed. Haljits of 
exact observation should be cultivated early in life, and 
maintained persistently. Gazing around at every thing, 
and listening to every sound, are not meant by this, but 
a careful attention to details, plans, and purposes.* 

2. Self -observation. Man is naturally inclined to 
look out of himself before he looks within. There is a 
propriety in this. The mind must have materials of 
thought before it thinks. But it is of importance tliat 
w^e learn to observe our own activities and thus become 
acquainted with ourselves.f Great care should be given 
to the acquisition of exact self -ideas. The habit of ex- 
act self-observation is of inestimable value. What do I 
perceive ? What do I remember ? What do I think ? 
What were my motives ? What is my intention ? As 
we interrogate the outer world and find out its secrets, 
so we interrogate self and thus become acquainted with 
the inner world. 

3. N ouTYienal-obseTvation. The habit of exact ob- 
servation of noume^ia as well as phenomena is highly 
important. All perceive concrete heing. It is. This 
is all that can be said. All perceive concrete good. 
Good is fundamental. It is right, is final. We must 
learn to perceive concrete necessary-realities distinctly 
and exactly. We perceive that these parts equal this 
whole, and think these and similar observations into 

* Palmer. + McCosh. 



88 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

axioms. !Necessary-ideas, self -ideas, and sense-ideas are 
alike reliable. 

lY. Assimilation. — This is tlie most fruitful term yet 
used to express the union of our present with our pre- 
vious acquisitions. Nothing is more congenial, from 
babyhood to the end of life, than assimilating the new 
to the old. The victorious assimilation of the new is 
the type of all intellectual pleasure. The lust for it is 
curiosity. The emotion occasioned by discerning the 
relations of the new to the old is wonder. What we 
partly know inspires us with a desire to know more. 

1. Identification of the new and the old. ISTew ac- 
quisitions have to be interpreted in the light of former 
experiences. I see a man near, and I say, " Here comes 
my brother." He has changed during our years of sep- 
aration, but I readily recognize him. The identification 
of the new and the old is uninterrupted, prompt, imme- 
diate. The same speed and accuracy of identification 
occurs in reading. To assimilate wholly new impres- 
sions is difiicult. The mind searches its previous knowl- 
edge, comparing the new with the old, and in the end 
finds a place for the new with the old, and thus enriches 
itself.* 

2. Making our acquisitions an organic whole. 
When this is not done, the thinking and acting are 
fragmentary and disconnected. Things unorganized can 
grow only by accretion, the simple addition of particles 
from without, but an organized body grows and devel- 
ops by an inherent power within. Work of such kind 
and in such quantity should be given to j^upils as can 
be thoroughly assimilated and combined with previous 

* Eooper's Apperception. 



APPERCEPTION. 89 

knowledge, for only in this way and by this means does 
the mind gain mastery. Many persons who have a vast 
fund of information seem to be lacking in mental power, 
and the cause of this is that what they know exists in 
the mind as isolated facts. They do not comprehend 
and appreciate the relation of one thing to another and 
of each to the whole. Their knowledge is like useless 
rubbish, impeding instead of assisting the growth and 
development of mind. The viewing of each new ac- 
quirement in its relation to previous ones and in its re- 
lation to the whole, the assimilation of the new with the 
old, and its combination with the whole is what makes 
knowledge of value. The combination of all our acqui- 
sitions into an organized symmetric unit is the culmina- 
tion of method in education.* 

3. Apperceiving is the most important idea in edu- 
cation. " Prof. James, in his Psychology (vol. ii, page 
107), says that the word apperception has carried very 
different meanings in the history of philosophy — a true 
remark, though not true of apperception only, but of 
almost all words used by philosophers and other people. 
The truth is that apperception has only two meanings 
that are worth mentioning, and these are : first, the 
meaning of perception pure and simple — its meaning 
in French and the meaning in old English of aperceive; 
and, second, that given it by Herbart, which means 
the assimilation of an idea by associating it with old 
ideas and thus interpreting it by bringing to bear on it 
all one's previous experience. l!s^ow, this is the most 
important idea in education, and deserves a new techni- 
cal term all to itself, if any educational idea deserves 

* Elliott. 



90 APPLIED PSTCnOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

sucli an honor. In the Kantian and Leibnitzian sense 
the word has nearly, if not qnite, the meaning given it 
by Herbart. Leibnitz uses it to mean perception to- 
gether with memory, and this is in effect Herbart's use 
of the word. Kant uses it to express the combination 
of what is received through the senses with the cate- 
gories of the mind (quantity, quality, relation, and 
mode), and this is evidently the interpretation and 
recognition of the new perception by the aid of ideas 
already in the mind. Prof. James thinks that there 
are a number of words that will serve to render the 
meaning of Herbart — he names psychic reaction, inter- 
jpretation, concejption, assimilation, elaboration, thought. 
It is not one of these words, but all of them taken to- 
gether, that are required to express the word appercep- 
tion whenever that word is used by an Herbartian, for 
the word calls up not only asshnilation, but a special 
kind of assimilation, namely, an interjpretation of the 
new by the old ideas, and it implies also explanation, 
which assimilation does not, for the literal meaning of 
the latter is digestion, or simply the making-like. The 
idea of apperception is very complex, containing the fol- 
lowing elements never synthesized before Leibnitz and 
Herbart so as to be denoted by one word : (1) A train 
of ideas already in the mind as a result of experience. 
(2) A new idea which is brought into relation to this 
train so as to be recognized through it, and (3) inter- 
preted and explained by it ; (4) this process resulting in 
a twofold result, namely, a knowledge of the real exist- 
ence of examples or individual instances of the idea in 
question; and (5) the subsumption of those particular 
instances under a general concept and the recognition 



CULTURE OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 91 

that the individual perceived is only a special phase and 
not the whole reality of the general idea." 

Y. Observing Nature. — The children must be drawn 
toward, and not away from, the woods and fields and 
waters, and must be led to see more clearly that ISTature 
lives and feels and acts, and links itself to human inter- 
est and sympathy in the strongest and the subtlest ways ; 
that a man cut off from fellowship with the creatures 
of the open air is like a tree deprived of all its lateral 
roots and trimmed to a single branch. He may grow 
down and up, but he can not grow out. It is not cred- 
itable that their education should leave our well-bred 
men and women so blind to the significance and beauty 
of the world of life. The greater part of the emotional 
or aesthetic value of zoology is lost, if the door of the 
class-room is shut. A personal knowledge of the habits 
and activities of animals, and a habit of sympathetic 
observation of them, are very valuable elements in the 
result of the skillful teaching of a well-arranged course.* 

The best training of the observing powers lies out- 
side the range of school exercises. A habit of close 
observation of IS'ature is best acquired in friendly asso- 
ciation with, and under the guidance of, an observant 
parent or tutor, in hours of leisure. A daily walk with 
a good observer will do more to develop the faculty than 
the most elaborate school exercises. The training of the 
observing powers is indeed that part of intellectual edu- 
cation that most requires the aid of other educators than 
the schoolmaster. The young need to mingle with 
Nature, and should be trained to observe hill and dale, 
stream and wave; trained to observe the forms and 

* Forbes. 



92 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

movements of plants and animals, which are the best 
exercise of the observing faculty ; and trained for those 
simpler and more attractive kinds of scientific observa- 
tion — e. g., collecting birds' eggs, fossils, etc. — which 
grow natm-ally out of children's play-activity.* 

* Sully. 



PAET II. 

EDUCATION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE 
POWERS. 



CHAPTER VII.— The Representative Powers and Repre- 
sentative Knowing. 
yin. — ^Education op Memory. 
IX.— Educational Treatment op Phantasy. 
X.— Education op Imagination. 
XT . — Culture op the Representative Powers. 



\ 



\ 4. 



RESEMBLANCE 



CONTIGUITY 



ANALOGY 



Laws of association and suggestion. Present ideas suggest 
other ideas with which they have been associated. The five laws of 
association named in the above cut are the five ways in which self 
associates his acquisitions, and the five ways in which associated 
ideas suggest each other. " These," says Mark Hopkins, " seem to 
me to be original and irreducible ; at least no reduction of them can 
be made that will be of practical value. They will remain the sepa- 
rate working methods of suggestion and must be studied as such." 
By five circles we may fitly represent experiences as linked together 
in five distinct ways : by having each circle cut all the other circles, 
it is intended to indicate the truth that the suggestion may occur in 
at least five ways. The possibilities of recalling are thus multiplied 
many fold. 



PART SECOND. 

EDUCATION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 



CHAPTEK YII. 

THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS AND REPRESENTATIVE 
KNOWING. 

Self as representation makes present again, in old 
and new forms, his past experiences. Present means 
to make things present originally, but represent {re, 
again 4- prcesentare, to make present) means to make 
present again. Presentative knowing is making things 
present to ourselves for the first time, but r^-presenta- 
tive knowing is making our experiences present to our- 
selves again ; it is re-knowing. 




Our representative powers are our capabilities to 
make our acquisitions present again in old and new 
forms. They are our native energies to modify ^as well 
as to revive our experiences. 

Self as memory recalls his acquisitions in the old 
forms of experience. I remember the home of Emer- 



96 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

son just as I saw it. Self as phantasy weaves liis ex- 
periences into new forms called fancies. We thus re- 




present our experiences in reverie and dreaming. Self 
as imagination /'^-presents his experiences in new forms 
called ideals. We so change and rearrange realities as 
to form ideals. Some psychologists designate these pro- 
cesses as reproductive imagination, passive imagination, 
and creative imagination. It is better to retain the old 
names. 

I. Memory. 

This is the native energy of self to reproduce his 
acqiiisitions. That memory is a native energy of self 
is an unquestioned fact. The expressions " I remem- 
ber " and "I do not recollect " mean almost as much to 
the child as to the philosopher. We are endowed with 
the capability to recall our past experiences. Memory 
is simply the self remembering. Self as memory does 
all his recalling. Memory, like awareness and atten- 
tion, enters into all our knowing, feeling, and willing. 

I. Memory Products. — Revived experiences are onem- 
ories, reinemhrances, recollections. We speak of sweet 
memories of other days, and cherish the fond recollec- 
tions of childhood. Our memories are of our emotional 
and active experiences as well as of our cognitive. We 
do not recall our emotions, but we recall ideas occasioned 
by our emotions. The recollection may occasion a new 



MEMORY. 97 

emotion, but the dead emotion is merely a memory. 
Self embalms bis emotions and purposes in ideas ; when 
recalled, these ideas may occasion new emotions. We 
recall our impressions and notions of all our experi- 
ences. Our memories are our lives revived. 3Iemo7'y 
makes no changes. Attention to this fact may prevent 
much needless confusion. 

II. Memory Processes. — My memory is my capability 
to recall my past experiences. For the thousands this is 
all that need be said. But you seek deeper insight. 
The actual processes of remembering are inscrutable ; 
but we study to know facts about the processes. 

1. Retaining is so associating and unitizing our experiences that 
present experiences will suggest past experiences. This must be the 
meaning of retention, for it is certain we do not keep our experiences 
in mind. Suggestion is the key to the storehouse of memory. We 
may be said to retain our acquisitions when we possess the key to 
unlock our stored treasures. Our memories become retentive when 
we thoroughly assimilate and carefully associate our acquisitions. 

2. Representing is restoring the thing remembered with its asso- 
ciations. In acquisition we assimilate into unity our old and new 
experiences ; we form associated experience groups ; we make picture- 
groups. When we remember we recollect the group. We represent 
to ourselves the thing remembered with its environments. We 
restore the unity. But all mental acts are marvelously complex. 
Imagination and thought and emotion enter largely into our repre- 
sentations, filling up the outlines of memory. 

3. Reproducing is bringing back to mind our former experiences. 
This is pre-eminently the meaning of memory. We express this 
wonderful act by such words as remember, recollect, and represent. 
You reproduce the problem just as the teacher stated it. 

4. Recognizing is identifying experiences and memories. You 
recognize this lady as your friend of former years. You recognize 
this poem as one you memorized while attending school. I am aware 
that my memories were my experiences. This is what is meant by 
recognition. Professor James gives this definition : " Memory is the 

n 



98 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

knowledge of an event or fact of which meantime we have not been 
thinking, with the additional consciousness that we have experienced 
it before.'" While this is true of a complete act of memory, we are 
aware that recognition is wanting in a large proportion of our acts 
of memory. As a rule, we do not recognize the memories we build 
into our phantasms, ideals, and thoughts as former experiences. 

III. Memory Laws; Laws of Suggestion. — Present 
experiences suggest past experiences. This is a funda- 
mental fact in the mental economy. The child for the 
first time sees a pineapple ; its optic apparatus is ener- 
gized so that it gains an idea of the object. It asks the 
name, and is told that it is a pineapple ; its auditory 
apparatus is now energized so that it gains the word. 
It associates the name and the object, so that thereafter 
the name suggests the object and the object suggests 
the name. Here we certainly have a physiological basis 
for association and suggestion, but the actual revival is 
surely mental. 

We assimilate into unity our experiences. "We asso- 
ciate our acts as parts of related wholes. A present 
idea suggests other ideas associated with it, and thus 
self restores the unity of his experience. Memory de- 
pends on association, but interested attention, systematic 
arrangement, and determined effort widen and deepen 
association. 

1. Association by resemUance and contrast (see cut, page 91). 
Similar or contrasted ideas associated together suggest each other. 
The term ideas is here used to include all our experiences. The 
learner observes and assimilates into groups similar things. The 
similars associated constitute an experience unit. When we think 
of one of the similars it suggests the other members of the group. I 
think of birds, and the idea suggests the whole group of vertebrates. 
Dissimilar related things suggest each other ; joy suggests sorrow, 
and hope suggests fear. 



MEMORY. 99 

2. Association hy contiguity. Experiences occurring together 
or in succession suggest each other. This law is far-reaching and 
explains most of our remembering. A thousand illustrations will 
occur to you. 

3. Association by correlation. Ideas associated as correlatives 
suggest each other. The word suggests the idea as the idea suggests 
the word. The sign ( + ) suggests addition. The effect suggests the 
cause ; the end, the means ; the consequent, the antecedent ; the con- 
clusion, the premises. Ruler suggests subjects ; father, son ; uncle, 
nephew. This may be counted the master law of suggestion, includ- 
ing all forms of thought association. 

Other memory laws will be considered in connection 
with memory culture. When we seek to recall some- 
thing, we must make search for it just as w^e rummage 
a house for a lost object. Success crowns wise and de- 
termined effort. 

lY. Memory Cerebration. — In some unknown way 
mental processes go on in connection with brain-pro- 
cesses. The mystery of remembering is no greater than 
the mystery of perceiving. " Conscious memory," says 
Ladd, " is a spiritual phenomenon, the explanation of 
which, as arising out of nervous processes and condi_ 
tions, is not simply undiscoverd in fact, but utterly in 
capable of approach by the imagination. When, then, 
we speak of a physical basis of memory, recognition 
must be made of the complete inability of science to 
suggest any physical process which can be conceived of 
as correlated with that peculiar and mysterious actus of 
the mind, connecting its present and its past, which 
constitutes the essence of memory." 



100 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING, 



II. Phantasy.* 

This is tlie native energy of self to weave Ms ex- 
periences into new forms called fancies. It is self, 
spontaneously and without purpose, throwing his expe- 
riences into the incoherent and grotesque forms of day 
and night dreams. Memory furnishes most of the ma- 
terials. Suggestion comes chiefly through association 
by resemblance and contiguity. Sensations, chiefly or- 
ganic, strangely affect our dreams. When all is well, 
our dreams are pleasant ; but, when the body or the 
mind is disturbed, our dreams are troubled. 

Some psychologists treat of phantasy as the passive imagination, 
as they treat of memory as the reproductive imagination. This no- 
menclature seems to me objectionable. (1.) We can not think of a 
passive energy, but we are familiar with unpurposed and undirected 
activity. (2.) These are not the expressions used in literature or by 
the people. (3.) These expressions multiply the difficulties of the 
learner and the teacher. A more fundamental objection is stated 
elsewhere. It is surely every way better to retain the easy and fa- 
miliar names of these powers — Jlemory, Phantasy, Imagination, 
The Greeks meant hj phantasia, image-making. Fancy, phantasy, 
and fantasy are merely the three forms of the word. Phantasy is 
here used because freer from misleading associations than the other 
forms. 

I. Phantasy Products. — Self, out of his experiences, 
immediate and revived, constructs fancies. The pano- 
ramas we paint for our own amusement, in reverie and 
dreaming, are called fancies. We can put into our 
dreams only our experiences. The blind put no color 

* See Elementary Psychology, Chapter XI, also James Mark Baldwin's 
Handbook of Psychology, Chapter XII. This faculty, called by him Passive 
Imagination, is admirably treated. As a wonderful exhibition of the play 
of phantasy, study Shakespeare's Midsummer-Night's Dream. 



PHANTASY. 101 

into their fancies. Adults who have lost their hearing 
before the fifth year put no sound into their dream 
images. Self as phantasy deals with the concrete. Our 
fancies are made up of sense-percepts, self -percepts, and 
necessary-percepts. Concepts are not used in our dreams. 
Each one can give many apt illustrations from his own 
experiences. 

II. Phantasy and Awareness. — We are aware of our 
dreams and of self viewing the panorama ; but, at the 
same time, our dreams seem to us to be objective reali- 
ties. We do not recognize the memories that are woven 
into our dreams as former experiences, nor are we aware 
that these fancies are products of our own minds. I 
am merely aware of self viewing the scenes he makes, 
and of the varying emotions occasioned by those pict- 
ures. In soundest sleep and even in delirium I am 
aware. The sense-world may fade away, but self never 
ceases to be conscious of his own acts. 

III. Phantasy and Memory. — Memory acting through 
suggestion recalls our experiences for the use of phan- 
tasy. Self as phantasy disassociates his experiences and 
then recombines them into new forms. As thus changed, 
we do not recognize these as past experiences, but look 
upon them at the time as new experiences. Our fancies 
are not usually remembered, as there is slight attention, 
and as dream-life is apart from waking life. Memory 
represents our acquisitions in the old forms of experi- 
ence ; phantasy represents our experience in new 
forms. 

ly. Phantasy and Mesmerism. — Operators try to in- 
duce the mesmeric state and keep their patients in this 
condition. Phantasy is now peculiarly sensitive to sug- 



102 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

gestions made by the operator. Phantasms seem to be 
realities, and the patient acts his dreams. In the same 
way may be explained many things connected with 
somnambulism, dehrimn tremens, and insanity. The 
play of phantasy is the key to many mysteries. 

V. PMntasy and Cerebration. — During repose, when phantasy is 
most active, the blood-supply to the cerebrum is greatly reduced. 
Perception, and thought, and will are slightly active, and the ex- 
hausted brain recuperates. Self drifts. Gentle sensor excitations 
and present ideas suggest other experiences. Self, without purpose 
and without plan, goes on linking fancy to fancy. This is scrib- 
bling, not writing ; this is the child daubing, not the artist paint- 
ing. This is the whirlwind piling up the timbers, not the architect 
constructing the mansion. Phantasy is self representing his experi- 
ences in the grotesque forms called phantasms. 

YI. Phantasy and Imagination. — A clear distinction 
between these powers helps the psychologist much, but 
the educator more. Imagination is purposed and di- 
rected effort, but phantasy g6es on without purpose and 
without direction. The one is work, the other play. 
We educate the one and leave the other to roam fancy 
free. Phantasy is to the imagination what the kaleido- 
scope is to the designer ; it gives suggestions which the 
imagination may work up in higher forms. It is thus 
a helpful factor in creation. Phantasy is active in child- 
hood, while imagination is feeble and halting. 

III. Imagination. 

This is the capability of self to transform the real 
into the ideal. Beecher, it is said, never made a quo- 
tation. As the bee transforms sweet into honey, so 
Beecher transformed everything he touched into Beech- 
crisms. The materials are realities, but the creations of 



IMAGINATION. 103 

imagination are ideals. Out of your experiences you 
create an ideal cottage wliicli you hope to make a re- 
ality. We constritct our ideals ; this is prose. We 
form our ideals ; this is poetry. We create our ideals ; 
this is both prose and poetry. Create, as here used, 
means to make out of our experiences new wholes. 

I. Imagination Products, — These are called ideals. 
A reality is something that really exists independent of 
the mind. This school-house, and this, and this, are 
real school-houses. Out of my experiences I make a 
plan for a school-house widely different from anything 
I have ever seen. This ideal school-house is my own 
creation and exists only in my mind. Imagination 
modifies experiences, rearranges tliem, analyzes them, 
and makes new syntheses. Imagination makes models, 
constructs hypotheses, forms systems, creates poems. 
Kealities, touched by the magic wand of imagination, 
become ideals. Yonder mountain becomes a mountain 
of gold crowned with crystal palaces inhabited by an- 
gels. Ideal is opposed to real, and is used to designate 
the products of imagination. Ideas are notions of re- 
alities ; ideals are creations of the mind. Memory rep- 
resents our acquisitions in the old forms of experience ; 
imagination represents experiences in the new forms of 
ideals. 

II. Limits of Imagination. — We gain ideas and construct 
ideals. 

1. We are dependent on sense-perception for all we know of the 
material world. Self as imagination is limited to his sense-experi- 
ences. The deaf put no sounds into their creations ; nor do the 
blind put color. 

2. We are dependent on self-perception for all we know of the 
mind-world. We can endow our ideal man or angel with our own 



104 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

capabilities and nothing more. True, we are able to vary the degree 
of knowing, feeling, and willing almost infinitely. 

3. We are dependent on necessary-perception for all we know of 
necessary realities. We must make our ideals somehow, somewhere^ 
and some when. We must make our ideals out of matter and spirit. 
We must construct our ideals in harmony with our axiomatic intu- 
itions. Even in imagination we can not make the whole greater 
than the sum of all its parts. 

III. Imagination and Memory. — Self as imagination 
represents his experiences in new forms called ideals. 
But memory furnishes the materials from the storehouse 
of experience out of which imagination makes his crea- 
tions, as the hod-carrier supplies the mason with bricks 
and mortar out of which to build the wall. We asso- 
ciate and recall our ideals, as we associate and recall our 
ideas. On the other hand, no one knows how much 
imagination helps memory, filling out to completeness 
the skeletons of the experiences we recall. 

TV. Imagination and our other Powers. — As the mas- 
ter-builder, self, in creating his ideals, commands all his 
capabilities ; memory contributes materials, will contrib- 
utes purpose, emotion contributes inspiration, thought 
contributes wisdom to guide and restrain. Thus we 
create the enduring works of art and literature and life. 

Y. An Ideal is a Working Model — It is the harmo- 
nious blending into one mental product the idea and 
the object. My ideal blackboard is grateful to the eye, 
free from dust and a perfect writing surface. Here the 
object is the blackboard, and the ideas are those named. 
I realize my ideal when I make it a reality. All inven- 
tion, all progress, all education, come from efforts to 
realize ideals. To the educator, as to the inventor, the 
ideal is the working model. We labor here and every- 



EDUCATION OF MEMORY. 105 

where to realize our ideals. Our ideals, in this sense, 
are the finished products of our imaginations. Much 
of the work of imagination consists in modifying and 
rearranging our acquisitions ; still, it is best to call even 
these imperfect forms ideals as opposed to reals. 



CHAPTER YIII. 

EDUCATION OF MEMORY. 

By this is meant the development of the power to 
reproduce past experiences. Last year I visited, with 
friends, Minnehaha Falls and enjoyed its beauties. The 
friends are scattered, and I am far away from that de- 
lightful scene. But I now recall it with its associations, 
and I recognize this memory as a past experience. 
Memory is my capability to reproduce my past acqui- 
sitions. When I am able to do this readily and accu- 
rately, my memory is said to be educated ; you say I 
have a good memory. 

I. Relations and Definitions. 

Memory stands for recalling. "When we think of 
memory, it is always our power to reproduce our past 
experiences. We think of retention and association 
and suggestion and recognition as incidents of memory ; 
memory includes these processes. We simply think of 
recalling when we think of memory. Memory stands 
for all recalling. 

1. Memory is the capability of self to recall hi^ past 
experiences. Acquisition makes knowledge presentybr* 



106 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



the first time / memory makes knowledge present again. 

Acquisition presents ; memory /"^-presents. Present 

means to 'inake present to ourselves ; T^^-present means 

to make present again ; to recollect ; to remember ; 

to reproduce ; to recall. 

2. Memories are recollections of past experiences. 

Memories, remembrances, and recollections are the prod- 
ucts of memory, as percepts 
are the products of percep- 
tion. We acquire ideas ; 
these when remembered are 
termed revived ideas. Re- 
membered percepts are sim- 
ply revived percepts. This 
is true of all our remembered 
experiences ; they are simply 
revived experiences. The ex- 
perience is merely recalled 
and recognized. Memory 
makes no changes. Our re- 
membrances coincide with 
our experiences. 

3. Education of memory 
is the development of the 
native energy of self to re- 
call his past experiences. It 
makes the difference between 
the feeble memory of the 
child and the powerful mem- 
ory of the man. The ready, 

accurate, exhaustive memory comes of culture. 

4. Relations of memory. In the mental economy 




IMPORTANCE OF MEMOrwY-CULTURE 107 

memory stands midway between perception and tliouglit. 
"We acquire, we remember, we think. Self as memory 
records and reproduces his experiences. You know, 
memory is there ; you feel, memory is there ; you will, 
memory is there. Memory supplies imagination and 
thought with materials. Memory holds up to choice 
alternatives. Attention and awareness and memory are 
bosom friends who never separate. This trio accompa- 
nies all other acts of knowing, feeling, and willing. 
While we jperceive^ we attend, remember, are aware ; 
while we thinh^ we attend, remember, are aware ; and 
while we feel and determine, we attend, remember, are 
aware. 

II. Importance of Memoky-Cultuee. 

A good memory is a friend which sticketh closer 
than a brother. One with a poor memory gropes in 
the dark, while one with a good memory works in the 
light of all he knows. Millions bewail their weak mem- 
ories, while thousands rejoice in their strong memo- 
ries. 

1. Memory makes learning possihle. We can 
hardly appreciate the importance of a good memory. 
Without it, skill or progress in any direction would be 
impossible. The teacher bases all his instruction upon 
the possibilities of reproduction. We test our pupils 
and estimate men and women by what they are able to 
reproduce. 

2. Memory makes thinking possihle. It supplies 
material for thought. It holds up before conception 
various objects to be compared and classified. It holds 
up before judgment two notions, that the agreement 



108 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

or disagreement may be discerned. It holds up before 
reason the premises, that the conclusion may be in- 
ferred. 

3. Memory multiplies our joys. It makes a thing 
of beauty a joy forever. " Pleasures of memory " is 
classic. True, we do not recall the old joys, but our 
recollections of our past joys occasion new joys. A 
good memory brings to us over and over again the sweets 
of life, while forgetfulness drops out of our lives all 
bitter things. 

4. A good memory increases efficiency. The student 
with a good memory accompHshes many times as much 
as the student with a poor memory. A teacher with 
a good memory furnishes his pupils a perpetual feast. 
A good memory is of incalculable value to the minister, 
to the lawyer, to all workers. 

5. Neglect of memory-culture. May all have good 
memories % Some are more gifted than others, but all, 
by culture, may develop vigorous memories. Why is 
this culture so neglected \ Why is it that persons with 
excellent memories are so rare ? How may we remedy 
this evil? Better methods of study and of teaching 
will work wonders. 

III. Growth of Memory. 

Macaulay, when a child, remembered the names of 
his toys ; but, when a man, he remembered the facts of 
human history. Groivth made the difference between 
the feeble memory of the infant and the mighty mem- 
ory of the man. Teaching is the art of promoting this 
growth. 



GROWTH OF MEMORY. 



109 






1. Infant memory. Next to sense-perception, memory earliest 
becomes active. When but a few weeks old, the child remembers 
the face of its parents and various objects. 

When but a few months old the child re- 
members the names of objects as well as 
the objects. When the child is three years 
old it uses correctly a considerable number 
of words to express its acquisitions. But 
infant memory is feeble, and early im- 
pressions are fleeting. The three years 
of infancy are a blank to the adult. An 
adult puts no color into his memories 
when sight has been lost before the fifth 
year. 

2. Childhood memories. From the third 
to the tenth year objective memory is act- 
ive. The child associates the word with 
the object. Words occurring in succession 
are associated. Stories and pictures are re- 
membered. Memory is now fresh and act- 
ive, but comparatively weak. 

3. Memory in boyhood and girlhood. 
During this period objective memory reach- 
es full activity and abstract memory be- 
comes active. Language is easily learned 
and readily remembered. Semi-science is 
the delight of boys and girls. 

4. 3Iemory in youth. During this period 
memory becomes fully active. The vigor- 
ous memory of youth is proverbial. All 
forms of knowledge are now easily remem- 
bered. Impressions are lasting. 

5. Ifemory in manhood. Up to the 
meridian of life, memory certainly becomes 
more and more commanding. The mem- 
ories of Webster and Gladstone were vast- 
ly more vigorous at fifty than at twenty. 

6. Memory in old age. At ninety Hum- 
boldt's memory was as vigorous as in youth. 
Bisma""ck and Gladstone at seventy-five 



1- 



1 



110 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

gave no signs of memory failure. But, when the old cease to make 
new conquests, memory begins to lose its grasp. 

lY. Laws of Memory-Growth. 

The uniform ways in which we must work in order 
to promote the growth of memory are termed the laws 
of memory-growth. 

I. General Laws. — These are here stated in terms of 
memory. It is well to keep in mind that memory in- 
cludes association, suggestion, reproduction, and recog- 
nition. It is the native energy of self to recall his past 
experiences. 

1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in associ- 
ating and recalling our ideas educates memory. We 
assimilate and associate our new and old experiences. 
We organize our acquisitions into unity, so that a pres- 
ent notion suggests the entire group of associated ideas. 

2. Law of means. Studies which call memory into 
constant and vigorous activity have a high memory- 
culture value. The study of history is an excellent 
means for improving memory. The study of algebra is 
not a good means for memory-culture. 

3. Law of method. Plans of work which call mem- 
ory into lawful, systematic, vigorous, and persistent ac- 
tivity develop this power. The methods of study and 
teaching very largely determine the value of a study. 

II. Special Laws. — Many valuable laws relating to 
the culture of memory have been presented by educa- 
tional writers. A few of the more important are given. 

1. Law of the brain. A healthy and vigorous brain conditions a 
good memory. It is certain that self works in and through his 
physical organism. It is also certain that, the better the condition 
of his physical organism, the better he can work. This law empha- 



LAWS OF MEMORY-GROWTH. HI 

sizes the importance of school hygiene. Pupils who take little 
exercise, and study in a crowded room, poorly ventilated and poorly 
heated, will likely be noted for poor memories. Boys who smoke 
cigarettes and girls who chew gum nearly always complain of weak 
memories. Violation of law brings all our woes. 

3. Laio of association. Vigor of mind, interested attention^ 
rational order, and repetition strengthen association. This law gives 
us the key to good memory. Complete association makes reproduc- 
tion easy and exhaustive. No one who observes this law will com- 
plain of a poor memory. 

3. Law of interest Delight in study marvelously strengthens 
association and suggestion. We rarely forget things which delight 
us. Pupils who are deeply interested remember well. 

4. Law of determination. Determined and systematic effort to 
retain and reproduce our acquisitions develops memory. When wo 
make up our minds to remember, we can usually do so. I will re- 
member is almost invincible. We need to learn and remember many 
things which do not interest us. Determined effort enables us to 
do this. 

5. Law of retentive memory. Self must remember in order to 
know, as well as to reproduce what he knows. In general we treasure 
what we understand. But at almost every step memory must keep 
before self words and statements not understood, that he may inves- 
tigate and master them. Still, to crowd memory with unmeaning 
words, as the Chinese do, is a fundamental educational error. 

6. Laiv of time. Keeping a topic before the mind for a consid- 
erable time and recalling it frequently strengthens memory. The 
matter is examined from various standpoints, and associated in 
many ways. It is assimilated. In acquisition we must hasten 
leisurely. Hurried work is waste labor in education. Knowledge re- 
called at intervals not too great becomes firmly fixed in the mind. 
But knowledge not recalled soon fades into forgetfulness. 

7- Memory specifics. The multitude of these is absolutely be- 
wildering. The art of never forgetting will be taught in ten lessons ! 
While we are grateful for all helpful hints, the sooner we realize 
that there is no royal road to memory, the better for us and for 
our pupils. 



112 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



Y. Means foe Memory-Cultuke. 

Knowledge is the means for memory-culture. Stor- 
ing and reproducing knowledge educates memory. Any 
study may become the means of memory-culture when 
properly pursued ; but studies which call memory into 
constant and vigorous activity are of the greatest mem- 
ory-culture value. 



MEMORY-CULTURE, VALUE OF 



Kindergarten work and general object-lessons . . 
Primary language-lessons and juvenile literature 

Geography, botany, zoology 

History, literature, Latin 

Physiology, physics, chemistry 

Reading, drawing, music 

Mathematics, psychology, ethics 



10 
9 

10 
9 

7 



Explanation. Estimates in the first column are the author's; 
those in the second column are Dr. Brooks's. You may place your 
estimate in column three, then place the averages in column four. 
A few hours of earnest work along this line will give you deeper 
insight into the nature of memory and the relations of knowledge 
to memory. You will see that almost everything as to the culture 
value of a study depends on the teacher. 

Educational values depend upon study and teaching 
methods ; but, when methods are equal, some studies 
give better educational results than others. We may 
thus make an approximate estimate of the comparative 
educational value of various studies. Aristotle and 
Plato called attention to this matter. Bacon tells us 
that there is no defect that can not be remedied by "fit 
studies." He prescribes mathematics for thought^ his- 
tory for wisdom., poetry for wit., and science for depth. 
In our times the contention between the advocates of 



METHODS OF EDUCATING MEMORY. Hg 

the classics and the advocates of the sciences has given 
great prominence to this subject. Whewell and Spencer 
and Bain and Harris and others have ably discussed 
" JV7iat knowledge is of most worth f " Dr. Payne, in 
his Contributions to the Science of Education, gives a 
valuable chapter on " Educational Yalues." Frequent 
references will be made to his estimates^ because he, like 
Dr. Brooks, has ventured to make his estimates specific. 
For memory-culture Dr. Payne esteems of Idgli value, 
botany, geography, history, hterature ; of mediiim value, 
arithmetic, physiology, grammar ; of low value, physics. 

YI. Methods of educating Memory. 

These are efficient plans of work in getting, retain- 
ing, and reproducing knowledge. As teachers we can 
command the most favorable conditions. We can man- 
age to arouse and hold the interested attention of each 
pupil. We can use such illustrations and expedients as 
will enlist all the activities of the learner. We can lead 
the learner to thoroughly associate his acquisitions by 
assimilating into unity his old and new experiences. 
We can train the learner to the habit of recalling and 
using his knowledge. In these ways we promote the 
growth of memory. 

I. Kindergarten Methods. — The ideas gained by the 
child during its first three years fade away, but the im- 
pressions and habits endure. During these years the 
mother is the loving kindergartner. Happy the child 
that is wisely led during these precious years ! 

The Kindergartner suggests and manages, but still 
leaves the little ones almost as free as the birds. The 
child is led to explore the world around. It sees and 
8 



114 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

hears and tastes and smells and touches and uses all it 
comes in contact with. Its sense-experiences become 
sense-ideas. These it embodies in words, which become 
signs of the ideas. "New experiences and old are assimi- 
lated and associated. The narrow child-world is a unit. 
The child remembers because a present experience sug- 
gests its associates. It is trained to recall often and 
accurately its few experiences. As its world becomes 
larger, its memory grows stronger. 

II. Primary Methods. — Memory of words as the 
signs of objects is at its best during the primary period. 
During these four years the child becomes widely ac- 
quainted with things and their properties. This is the 
golden period for objective language-lessons. !Now the 
child easily learns to speak and read and write. Stories, 
hymns, precepts, and memory gems which touch child 
experience, educate child memory. Leading children 
to find out and tell about the earth and the animals 
and the plants develops memory. This is a fitting 
time to ingrain good habits. Acquiring good manners 
and morals cultivates memory. Here and everywhere 
primary lessons must be objective and concrete. The 
effort of the child to remember and act good manners 
and morals strengthens memory. 

The excellent manuals of primary methods, now 
within easy reach of every teacher, render details here 
unnecessary. Good primary teaching educates memory. 

III. Intermediate Methods. — During this period ob- 
jective and verbal memory are highly active, and mem- 
ory of the abstract begins to be active. Girls and boys 
are anxious to do more w^ork and more difficult work. 
Feats of memory delight them. 



METHODS OF EDUCATING MEMORY. 115 

1. Lead your pupils to study science. In geography 
and botany and zoology manage to liave your pupils 
observe closely, classify roughly, and find out some 
terms of science. No studies can elicit deeper interest 
or command closer attention. The experience gained is 
assimilated, associated, and constantly recalled. There 
is no better way to improve memory. A solid founda- 
tion is now laid for the study of science in the high- 
school and college. 

2. Lead your pupils to study history and litera^ 
ture. We are rich in the choicest books for this 
purpose. JN^ow is the time to cultivate a taste for 
good reading, and to train the pupils how to read. 
Everything must in some way connect with the pupil's 
experience. The wise teacher leads his pupils to ton- 
derstand^ assimilate^ associate^ and recall. The inter- 
est is intense and the attention complete ; memory 
grows strong. 

3. Reading^ language-lessons^ music, manners, and 
morals must be so taught as to educate memory as well 
as the other capabilities. Every advance step must be 
based on the experience of the pupil. The learner will 
remember because he knows. 

4. Doing educates memory. What the pupil does 
is seldom forgotten. You show the pupil the map of 
South America and talk to him about it, but he soon 
forgets. Have him mold South America and draw a 
map ; now he remembers. In our modern methods the 
pupil literelly worlcs out his own salvation. 

lY. High-School Methods. — During the high-school 
period memory, in all its forms, is highly active, and 
seems to reach full activity about the eighteenth year. 



116 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

The student now thinks his knowledge into system, and 
logically associates his experiences. 

1. Lead the student to master hotcmy cmd zoology. 
For memory-culture these studies are among the best. 
The student now multiplies his own experiences by ap- 
propriating the experiences of others. You lead him 
to rediscover the classifications of science, and to con- 
struct anew his botany and his zoology. Memory is 
called into constant and vigorous use. 

2. Lead the student to master the Latin language 
and Greeh and Latin literature. No other work will 
develop a more vigorous memory. The modern meth- 
ods of teaching the classics are admirable for memory- 
culture. 

3. Lead the student to study projperly history and 
literature. Facts are grouped and associated by their 
cause relations. The main events are thought into 
unity while minor matters are treated ' as scaffolding. 
The student toils to make his historic world a history 
of the race. Such studies grandly educate memory. 

4. Lead the student to cultivate a discriminating 
memory. To forget is as important as to retain. The 
important things must be seized and held, and the rub- 
bish must be rejected and dropped. All our memory 
energies are thus expended in retaining and recalling 
our most valuable experiences. For the younger pupils 
the teacher manages the discriminating, but the learner 
is gradually trained to select the best things for reten- 
tion. To remember everything would be to bury self in 
a sea of details. Selection is the basis of good memory, 
and forgetfulness is its partner. 

5. Train the student to organize his hnowledge. 



METnODS OF EDUCATING MEMORY. II7 

Self is not an organism but an organizer. Through 
organization we gain mastery. Organization means 
numerous associations ; and the more numerous the 
associations the greater the power of recalling. This 
is why we lead children to test objects as far as possible 
by each sense. This is why we must lead the learner 
frequently to recall his old knowledge and assimilate it 
and associate it in many ways with his new acquisitions. 
We forget proper names because we do not thoroughly 
organize them into knowledge unity. Usually the stu- 
dent's memory is best in the studies in which he takes 
the deepest interest, for in these he organizes his knowl- 
edge most completely. 

Y. General Directions for Memory-Culture. — Many 
find a few terse rules helpful. These should be so stated 
as to stir the student like bugle-blasts. 

1. Fuller'' s rules. These quaint but unique rules 
have assisted thousands : 

(1) Soundly infix what thou wouldst remember. 

(2) Marshal thy notions into method. 

(3) Overburden not the memory with details. 

2. CoTburvuS rules. These rules shine like stars. 
They have incited countless numbers to study better 
and teach better : 

(1) Learn one thing at a time. 

(2) Learn it thoroughly. 

(3) Learn its connections with other things. 

3. Rules for study. Each of the following rules is 
a golden link in memory's chain : 

(1) Take a deep interest in what you study. 

(2) Give your entire attention to what you 
study. 



118 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

(3) Thoroughly assimilate and associate the old and 
the new. 

(4) Push effort to complete mastery. 

YI. Control over Memories. — Each person can in a 
great measure remember or forget what he will. What 
we wish to remember we study thoroughly, associate in 
many ways, and recall often. Knowledge thus organ- 
ized sticks like burrs. We give slight attention to 
what we wish to forget, and refuse to assimilate it, and 
when such thoughts occur we refuse to entertain them. 
Things thus treated, like unwelcomed visitors, soon 
cease to trouble us. The teacher may, to a marvelous 
extent, control the recollections, and thus determine the 
characters of his pupils. 

1. The teacher determines the lessons. He con- 
trols presentation directly and representation indirectly. 
This far-reaching principle makes it possible to mold 
races of men, as witness the Jews and the Chinese. 

2. The teacher controls methods of acquisition. 
Thus by keeping the things he wishes remembered 
before the pupil he makes the memory certain. Do 
you realize how completely your pupils are in your 
hands ? 

3. The teacher controls illustrations. Objects, 
board work, moulding, charts, maps, experiments, etc., 
are so used as to impress deeply the thoughts he wishes 
remembered. Modern methods intensely interest, deeply 
impress, and secure system. These are the conditions 
of good memory. 

4. The teacher controls the physical conditions. 
The habits of the pupils, the temperature and the ven- 
tilation of the school-room, etc., are very much under 



METHODS OF EDUCATING MEMORY. 119 

the direction of the teacher. These conditions wonder- 
fully influence recollection. 

5. Teachers' resjponsihilities. Clearly, you largely 
control the ideas of your pupils. But ideas pass over 
into emotions, and emotions into acts. You thus de- ' 
tennine the lives of your pupils. Shrink not, appalled 
by the responsibility, but courageously press on, leading 
those in your charge up to a higher and better life. 

YII. Mistakes in educating Memory. — In our ear- 
nestness to have our pupils learn the most possible, we 
sometimes make grievous mistakes. As educators we 
must try to be law-abiding, and thus avoid hurtful blun- 
ders. 

1. Stated examinations and reviews at long inter- 
vals. Much waste labor in education is thus caused. 
During each lesson, true teaching calls up the past in 
connection with the present. The habit of command- ' 
ing our knowledge grows. I have not found stated ex- 
aminations and formal reviews helpful. 

2. The Chinese method — words without ideas. This 
certainly stultifies the mind. ISTo wonder China has 
made little progress for two thousand years. Do you 
know any teachers who use the Chinese method ? If 
60, hasten to teach them more perfect ways of education. 

3. Memory hefore experience. The arch-enemy 
could hardly have invented a method more hurtful. 
Thus are committed unmeaning definitions, rules, tables, 
classifications, facts. It is infinitely better for the learner 
to maTce these out of his experiences. He thus associates 
and remembers things understood and so grows stronger 
and wiser. 

4. Books in place of Nature. The sources of knowl- 



120 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

edge are all around the child. It has but to look to 
know. What can be more stupid than to have it mem- 
orize the book ? This does not even cultivate memory. 
"When you lead the child to gain knowledge directly 
from nature it will know and remember. Later it will 
be able to appropriate the experiences of others as con- 
tained in books. 

5 Indiscriminate remembering. This crowds the 
mind with rubbishj and tends to weaken memory. Not 
how much but how little is the safe rule. Selection lies 
at the base of learning. Lead the learner to treasure 
only the lest^ only the essentials. Memory thus be- 
comes strong and useful. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-BINTS. 

Memory becomes retentive, ready, and exact, when 
experiences are carefully selected and thoroughly organ- 
ized into unity. Interested attention, intelligent and de- 
termined effort, and vivid imagination re-enforce mem- 
ory and make it commanding. 

I. Helpful Books. — Next to sense-perception memory-culture has 
elicited most discussion. Among many excellent works may be men- 
tioned, Memory, by David Kay, International Education Series ; Sul- 
ly's Psychology ; Bain, Education as a Science ; Palmer, Science of 
Education ; White, Elements of Pedagogy : Garvey, Manual of Hu- 
man Culture. The subject is treated at great length in works on 
Physiological Psychology, by Spencer, Ladd, James, Wundt, etc. 
You will find it safe to ignore all systems of artificial mnemonics. 

II. Definitions. — Give your definition of memory ; of remem- 
brances ; of education of memory. Give your views of the relations 
of memory to perception ; to phantasy ; to imagination ; to thought ; 
to emotion ; to will. 

III. Importance of Memory-Culture. — State and illustrate three 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 121 

original reasons why you consider the education of memory highly 
important. 

IV. Growth of Memory. — T^-ace the growth of memory from in- 
fancy to the meridian of life. When do you think objective mem- 
ory becomes fully active % abstract memory ? Explain the loss of 
memory by old people. How may memory be kept vigorous even in 
old age ? 

V. Laws of Memory-Growth.— What do you mean by educational 
laws? State the law of effort in terms of memory ; law of means; 
law of method. Mention two special laws that you have discovered. 
Which of the special lav/s given do you consider most helpful ? 

VI. Means of Memory-Culture. — Tell what you mean by this. 
What branches do you esteem of highest value in memory-culture % 
You may make and explain a table of the memory-culture value of 
the leading school studies. 

VII. Methods of educating Memory. — What do you mean by this ? 
Tell how you would manage kindergarten work so as to develop 
memory ; primary work ; intermediate work ; high-school work. Ex- 
plain the assimilation of ideas ; the association of ideas ; the organi- 
zation of your knowledge. 

VIII. Mistakes in educating Memory. — Why do you think stated 
examinations a mistake % formal reviews ? What are your objec- 
tions to the Chinese method? to memory before experience? to 
books in place of Nature? to indiscriminate remembering? You 
may suggest two additional mistakes which teachers make in their 
treatment of memory. 

IX. Control over Memories. — How do you remember ? How do 
you forget ? Tell how the teacher controls the memories of his pu- 
pils. To what extent is the teacher responsible for what his pupils 
become ? 

X. Letter on Memory-Culture. — Put into your letter to your friend 
the best things you know about the education of memory. W^rite 
what you think. 



122 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

CHAPTER IX 

EDUCATIONAL TKEATMENT OF PHANTASY. 

Phantasy is the native energy of self to T'^present 
liis experiences as fancies. Phantasy is commonly writ- 
ten fancy or fantasy. In psychology it is often called 
the undirected imagination. When we rest, it is rev- 
ery; when we sleep, it is dreaming. In childhood it 
makes the stick a horse and the fairy tale a reality. 
Later, it makes the novel a history and the drama real 
life. It fills the drunkard's boots with snakes, changes 
the demented woman into Queen Victoria, and leads 
the somnambulist to act his dreams. Surely the edu- 
cator can not afford to ignore an activity that enters so 
widely into our lives. 

I. Characteristics of Phantasy. — These are marked. 
You can test tliem for yourself : 

1. Fancies seem to he realities. Your dreams seem 
to be new experiences. At the time you are not aware 
that you are merely representing old experiences in 
new forms. 

2. Phantasy activity is undirected. "Without plan 
and without purpose self spontaneously links fancy unto 
fancy. This is the play faculty of the soul. 

3. Phantasy disassociates and recomhines. Self as 
phantasy breaks up his experiences into elements and 
weaves these into new forms. It never occurs to us, 
however, that our fancies are made out of our experi- 
ences. At the time, our fancies seem to be new experi- 
ences. 

II. Relations of Phantasy. — While our other powers 



EDUCATIONAL TREATMENT OF PHANTASY. 123 

are least active phantasy is most active. Memory sup- 
plies materials. The laws of suggestion, chiefly those 
of contiguity and resemblance, are in force in dreamland. 

Immediate sensations, mostly organic, are woven 
into the fabric. When thought is slightly active, our 
dreams become arguments. When imagination is some- 
what active, our reveries and dreams become inventions, 
plans, romances. When our affections are slightly act- 
ive, our dreams become love-scenes. When will is suffi- 
ciently active, we act our dreams. When memory is 
slightly active, we remember our dreams. Dreamland 
is indeed a wonder-land. 

III. Control over Phantasy. — Wishing our dear ones 
pleasant dreams means much. It means refreshing 
sleep. Yery largely this depends on ourselves. Good 
digestion, physical comfort, an hour or two of physical 
and mental rest, and a conscience void of offense, are 
the conditions of sweet sleep and refreshing dreams. 
A sour stomach, overwork, and a troubled conscience, 
bring unrefreshing sleep and troubled dreams. 

Our waking exjperiences largely determine our 
dreams. Let our reading, our associations, and our 
emotions be habitually pure and elevating, and our 
dreams will be pure and peaceful. Let our reading, 
associations, and emotions be low and degrading, and 
our dreams will be unwholesome. 

Rarely tell your dreams. On waking, fancies 
should dissolve like mists before the sun. ]N^o one de- 
sires to retain his dreams ; but, if you tell your dreams, 
you will remember them more and more. As you 
awake, you will seize on your dream and associate it 
with your waking life, that you may tell it. 



124 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

lY. Phantasy in Childhood. — The baby weaves its 
little joys and griefs into its dreams : now it laughs, 
now it weeps. The child seems to suffer new punish- 
ments and engage in new plays. But the healthy child 
rarely remembers its dreams. 

1. Play is a thing of sense mid phantasy. Play 
is spontaneous activity ; work is directed activity. 
Watch the little ones at play ; without plan and with- 
out purpose they weave and act their fancies. See how 
they weave into their plays past and present experi- 
ences. 

2. Fairy-land is reality to the child. Fairy stories 
give unbounded pleasure. St. Nick, too, is a reality. 
Child literature is largely based on the activity of phan- 
tasy. The illusions fade out as years advance, but in 
childhood they must be wholesome. Anything is better 
than stupid materialism. 

Y. Phantasy and Illusions. — Self as phantasy forms 
out of his experiences images which seem to be realities. 
Macbeth saw the dagger, but, when he tested the appear- 
ance by another sense, he knew that it was his own crea- 
tion, a thing of phantasy. You could not be mistaken ? 
True, but what you saw was a phantasm and not a real- 
ity. A few grains of common sense will usually dissi- 
pate these illusions. 

YI. Phantasy and Imagination. — We do not educate 
phantasy ; we study it, and so treat it as to make its 
activity wholesome. Classing fancies as products of 
phantasy greatly simplifies the study of imagination. 
Phantasy is very active in childhood, but imagination 
acts feebly. Phantasy makes our fancies ; imagination 
creates our ideals. 



EDUCATION OF IMAGINATION. 



125 



CHAPTER X. 



EDUCATION OF IMAGINATION. 

Imagination rules the world. So Napoleon believed. 
Because the soul is progressive, it never quite repeats 
itself, but in every act at- 
tempts the production of a 
new and fairer world. So 
taught Emerson. All prog- 
ress comes from efforts to 
realize ideals. So the masters 
tell us. Ideals are our ap- 
proaches to the perfect. So 
poets and sages proclaim. 
Education of imagination is 
the development of our ideal- 
making power. 

I. Place of Imagination — 
Terms defined. 

1. Relations. Imagina- 
tion is a master power, com- 
manding all our other capa- 
bilities. Memory, from our 
stores of experiences, supplies 
imagination with materials, 
and also associates and recalls 
the products of imagination. 

"Will contributes purpose and concentrated and sustained 
effort. Emotion gives wings to imagination. Thought 
contributes discretion and law. Imagination is the 




1^6 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

master-builder, and our other powers are the co-opera- 
ting workmen. 

2. Iinagination is the native energy of self to create 
ideals. The phonograph was first an ideal in the mind 
of Edison. Imagination is self imagining. Purposely 
we put our experiences into new forms. We disassoci- 
ate our experiences and recombine them in new ways. 
We modify and rearrange our acquisitions. At the 
magic touch of imagination the hillock becomes a 
mountain, the rock becomes bread, and the figures, 1, 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, arrange themselves in seven hundred and 
twenty different ways. 

3. Ideals are lyroducts of imagination. Healities 
are independent existences ; ideals are mental creations. 
We become acquainted with realities and their relations 
and so gain ideas ; out of our experiences we make our 
ideals. Ideas are notions of things and their relations ; 
ideals are ideas and objects blended. This and this and 
this are real school-houses ; my ideal school-house blends 
the ideas of beauty, comfort, and adaptability w^ith a 
building embodying these ideas. Realities have their 
excellences ; ideals surpass realities as they embody the 
hest of many realities. The ideal landscape of the artist 
combines the beauties of a thousand real landscapes. 
The ideal manhood of the teacher combines the best 
characteristics of the grandest men. 

4. Self as imagination creates ideals. Create here means to so 
combine experiences as to make new wholes. Edison created the 
phonograph. No one thinks of his creating the materials ; he sim- 
ply made such new combinations as to give us a talking-machine. 
His ideal phonograph was a creation of the imagination. Homer 
created the Iliad. His experiences were real ; but the poet wrought 
these experiences into heroic forms. Many think of imagination as 



IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 127 

of moonshine — something vague and intangible, and, at most, as the 
power to make mechanical combinations or weave vagaries. How 
mistaken, how false, how inadequate is such thinking ! A deeper 
insight reveals self really creating his ideals. 

5. Education of imagination. We educate imagi- 
nation when we develop the power to create high ideals. 
It makes the difference between Aristotle, the child, 
making new combinations of his playthings, and Aris- 
totle, the man, creating the science of logic. 

II. Importance of educating Imagination. 

In practical life, in art, in literature, and in educa- 
tion, imagination stands for originality and progress. 
The leaders, in all ages, have been persons gifted with 
powerful imaginations. Some are naturally more gift- 
ed than others, but in all cases a vigorous and disciplined 
imagination is a result of education. 

1. Imagination represents experiences as ideals. I 
am aware of making my ideals just as I am aware of 
thinking. As imagination, I create my ideals out of my 
experiences, but the experiences are so changed that I 
do not recognize them as experiences. I am aware that 
I purposely make my ideals and that they are my own 
creations. As memory, I associate, recall, and recog- 
nize ideals, just as I associate, recall, and recognize 
ideas. In the act of creation I represent or make pres- 
ent again to myself my experiences in new forms called 
ideals. 

2. Cultxire of imagination leads the way in high 
achievement. Ideals of a perfect government led Wash- 
ington and his compeers in creating our marvelous Con- 
stitution. Your idea of a superior manhood leads yoii 



128 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

in your character-building. Lofty ideals, in every field 
of achievement, lead to high results. 

3. Culture of imagination stimulates mental en- 
ergy. It enables one to do more and better work. JS^ew 
devices, new combinations, new illustrations, and new 
applications make learning a delight and memory easy. 
The student with a good imagination easily leads the 
class. 

4. Imagination inspires effort. We can not tell 
how much we owe to imagination. The despairing 
Bruce was inspired to achieve the independence of 
Scotland by the efforts of the spider. One with a 
cultured imagination never commits suicide; hope 
springs eternal in such a mind. Every day, every hour, 
imagination fires our souls and inspires us for achieve- 
ment. 

6. Cultured imagination adds immeasxirdbly to our 
joys. Even in common life, the ideal gives more pleas- 
ure than the real. Cultured life is made a perpetual 
joy by the rich products of genius. A cultured imagi- 
nation enables us to appreciate and enjoy and create the 
best things. 

6. A cultured imagination is the fountain of per- 
petual youth. It keeps the Avorld fresh and growing. 
It keeps us ever young and buoyant. It fills the world 
with movement and poetry and song. 

7. Dangers of imagination. The express train has its dangers ;. 
still, most travelers prefer it to the ox-cart. Stupidity may be safe, 
but is a stupid life worth living ? Imagination like reason may be 
misused and so lead to disaster. The educator fortifies against these 
dangers. Neglect is most dangerous. Education is a positive pro- 
cess. If we neglect to so educate the imagination that it becomes 
the greatest possible good, it may become wayward and produce evil. 



GROWTH OF IMAGINATION. 129 

III. Growth of Imagination. 

" There is," says Herbert Spencer, " a certain se- 
quence in which the faculties spontaneously develop, 
and a certain kind of knowledge which each power re- 
quires during its several stages of growth. It is for us 
to ascertain this sequence and supply this knowledge." 
That the time for culture is during the period of 
growth, is one of the settled educational principles. 
But when does imagination become active ? "What are 
its stages of growth? What studies are best during 
each of these periods ? 

1. In childhood imagination is moderately active. 
Much of w^hat seems to be imagination is in reality 
phantasy. Without purpose the child weaves its few 
experiences into fancies. But the play of imagination 
also enters largely into child-Hfe. The child-imagina- 
tion is feeble, and its ideals crude. Compositions 
written by children best show this. Few poets are 
proud of poems written in childhood. How early the 
child imagines we can not know. Currie claims that 
even infants are strongly imaginative, but he evidently 
uses imagination in the sense of phantasy. Madame de 
Saussure declares that at the beginning of life imagina- 
tion is all-powerful, but she clearly means phantasy. 
Similar statements abound in educational works, and 
apply to phantasy, the play faculty of the mind. As I 
see it, the truth is that imagination is undoubtedly 
active in childhood, but that it acts feebly and gives 
crude and weak products. Paul might have said, 
" When I was a child I imagined as a child." 

2. In girlhood and hoyhood imagination is quite 



130 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

active. Compare a composition written by a boy of 
twelve with one written by him a few years earlier. 
You will note a marvelous growth of imagination. In- 
vention delights boys and girls. They never weary of 
suitable imaginative literature. 

3. In youth imagination is onarveloiisly active. 
The man works out the plans his boyish fancy wrought. 
About the fourteenth year imagination bursts into 
wonderful activity and becomes more and more vigor- 
ous as the years go by. Compare the composition of 
the youth with the composition of the boy. Literature 
that delights the boy has no charms for the youth. 

4. Li manhood imagination is fully active and 
jpowerful. About the twentieth year this faculty may 
be said to reach full activity. Compare the essay of the 
college student with the composition of the youth. You 
note a marvelous growth of the imagination. This fac- 
ulty seems to grow more and more powerful to the 
meridian of life, and may be kept vigorous even in old 
age. Homer's Odyssey, Tennyson's Locksley Hall 
Fifty Years After, and Humboldt's Cosmos, show 
towering imaginations in old age. 

lY. Laws of Laiagination-Geowth. 

Even imagination is subject to law. Here and 
everywhere growth comes from lawful effort. The 
great educational laws are in full force in educating 
imagination. 

I. General Laws. — These, stated in terms of imagina- 
tion, are as follows : 1, Law of effort. "Well-directed 
effort in creating ideals educates imagination. All the 
new forms into which we purposely mold our experi- 



MEANS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 131 

ences are termed ideals. Dreaming does not educate. 
This law requires determined effort under guidance. 
2. Law of means. Studies which demand constant 
and vigorous imaginative effort have a high value as 
a means of educating imagination. Literature and art 
rank highest. 3. Law of method. Plans of work 
which call imagination into lawful, vigorous, and per- 
sistent activity educate this power. Roaming fancy 
free does not educate. 

II. Special Laws. — These look directly to the improvement of 
imagination. 1. Imagination is educated by illustratiiig the abstract. 
This law is an abstract statement. What is meant by putting the 
abstract into a concrete form 1 Imagination answers, by giving an 
illustrative example. Thus a concept is a general notion ; as the 
notion oak is general to all acorn-bearing trees it is called a concept. 
Imagination seeks a particular instance ; it furnishes examples. Good 
writers thus make clear their abstract statements, and so enable the 
reader to grasp their meaning. Where this is not done, the student 
asks, " Why did he not give an example ? " 2. Efforts to realize 
ideals educate imagination. This is true of character-building, of 
the art of teaching, and of all art work. The sculptor toils to em- 
body his ideal. The teacher toils to educate his pupils up to his 
ideal. The inventor toils to realize his ideal in the new engine. 
As we advance we make our ideals higher and higher, and make 
greater and greater efforts to realize them. 

Y. Means of educating Imagination. — 

An instrumentality used to accomplish an end is a 
means — e. g., a plow is a means of cultivating the soil. 
"Whatever calls forth normal activity is a means of men- 
tal culture — as geometry is a means of cultivating rea- 
son. Lines of work calculated to call forth the vigor- 
ous and persistent effort of a faculty are counted 
superior means for its development — as botany is an 



132 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

excellent means for cultivating conception. "What lines 
of work are intrinsically best for the development of 
imagination ? The edncational value is largely depend- 
ent on methods of teaching and well-guided study. 
Good teaching and well-guided study are understood in 
the following estimates : 

Table of Educational Values.— Some studies call imagination into 
vigorous and constant activity ; these have a high value in the cult- 
ure of imagination. Some studies give considerable exercise to the 
imagination, but not so constant or vigorous ; these have a medium 
value in the culture of this power. Other studies require compara- 
tively little imaginative effort : these have a low value as a means 
for educating imagination. In the education of imagination, Dr. 
Payne counts of high value, geography and history; of medium 
value, literature ; of low value, arithmetic, botany, physics, physi- 
ology, and grammar. The estimates in column 1 are the author's ; 
in column 3, those of Dr. Brooks. In column 3 you will write 
your estimates ; in column 4 you will write the averages. 



ESTIMATED IMAGINATION-CULTURE. VALUE OF 


1 

10 
9 
9 

7 
6 


2 

10 

8 
8 
7 
5 


3 


4 


Language, composition, literature 




Drawing, molding, music, elocution, reading . . . 
Geography history. 










Botanv. zoolosrv. Dhvsioloerv. ohvsics. 






Arithmetic, algebra, geometry 











1. Language, composition, and literature. It seems to me that 
these studies easily rank highest. Imaginative literature, from 
childhood to age, does most to awaken and educate imagination. 

2. Art, as I think, comes next to literature. Drawing, molding, 
music, and elocution take high rank. Painters, sculptors, and archi- 
tects are classed with poets in the realms of imagination. 

3. Geography and history are entitled to come next. Of all our 
common-school studies, composition excepted, we rely most on 
these branches in the culture of imagination. 

4. Mathematics. By having the pupils mahe many of the prob- 
lems, considerable culture can be given to imagination even in arith- 



METHODS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 133 

metic and algebra. Imagination is only second to reason in the 
right study of geometry. 

5. Teaching is an excellent means. Hence, from childhood up 
each learner is trained to teach. This is a striking feature of the 
best teaching. The teacher puts herself in the place of the learner 
and creates illustrations and invents a|)plications. She leads the 
pupil to make questions and conduct classes. 

YI. Methods of educating Imagination. 

Plans of work that secure well-directed effort in 
constructing ideals are methods of educating imagina- 
tion. At this point a radical reform in our educational 
work is imperative. 

I. Kindergarten Methods.— Here we find embodied 
the philosophy of education. Imagination acts feebly 
but it is cultivated by easy objective work. The child 
is led to make new combinations of blocks and sticks 
and lines ; to make new forms in paper and wood and 
clay, to make new arrangements in stories and plays and 
pictures. Every wise mother is a natural kindergartner 
and will lead her little ones to do things in their own 
childish ways. These crude efforts are the beginnings 
in the development of imagination. 

II. Primary Methods. — Here too often we find or- 
ganized stupidity. The child is treated as a repeating 
machine. All originality is considered pertness and is 
stifled. The tendency is to make the child a mere 
drudge. All honor to the noble exceptions now rapidly 
multiplying ! The wise teacher will gather inspiration 
from the best teachers and the best literature ; and will 
so use art in its varied forms as to permit imagination 
growth. 

1. Lead the child to make new combinations. You 



134 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

can hardly do better at first than to adapt kindergarten 
methods to the wants of your pupils. Your drawing, 
molding, object-lessons, and language-lessons will afford 
ample opportunities. Only so manage that the child 
originates the combinations and forms his own crude 
ideals. 

2. Lead the child to image what it reads. The 
primary readers of our times are printed object-lessons 
suited for child-culture. Good teaching works wonders. 
Take, to illustrate, a single sentence — 

" See the pretty snow-flakes falling from the sky." 
Draw a picture of a snow-flake. Cut out of white 
paper a figure of a snow-flake. "Who can make a 
snow-storm ? " "I can." Mary gathers a handful of 
the paper flakes and hurls them through the air. Each 
child now images the above and reads it perfectly. 

3. Lead the child to construct. Botany and zoology in their 
simplest objective features are now made a part of the geography 
work in our best primary schools. The plan of work in geogra- 
phy with slight modifications applies to the branches named. 
Divisions of land and water ; of animals, plants, and minerals ; 
races, states, and nations are splendid object-lessons. The pupils are 
led to construct geographical playgrounds, making rivers and seas, 
making mountains and valleys, making the various divisions of land 
and water. The pupils are then led to construct in imagination 
rivers, lakes, and seas ; islands, mountains, countries, and continents. 
Putting forth these efforts wondrously increases the vigor of imagi- 
nation. Hasten leisurely. Remember that the wings of child- 
imagination are not strong. The flights must not be high or long. 

4. Lead the child to drinh in the heautiful. Beauty 
marvelously stirs the imagination. The beautiful world ! 
"We are charmed with the beauty of form and color and 
motion ; with beauty of speech and music and songs of 



METHODS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 135 

birds ; with beauty of truthfulness and good manners. 
Make the surroundings as beautiful as you can. Always 
have pictures and flowers in your school-room. Lead the 
children to draw beautiful objects, and in various ways 
produce beautiful objects. 

5. Lead the child to drink in child literature. Our 
readers and supplementary readers now furnish the 
best. You can supplement these by stories and suit- 
able papers and books. Biographical stories and suit- 
able histories strengthen the imagination. This is a 
most fruitful field, but discretion on the part of the 
parents and teachers is highly necessary. " Every first- 
class bit of food for the imagination has become classic. 
Classical literature focused for the imagination always 
has room for any choice gem. An untrained teacher 
or parent is safe when he turns to the classics for mate- 
rial with which to entertain children. Santa Claus has 
furnished little people of all climes with healthful in- 
spiration for the imagination ; has hallowed the pioneer 
day of winter ; has brightened and heightened gift- 
receiving, by delightfully dissociating gifts and giving 
from the personality of the donors. Mother Goose 
Melodies, although nonsense as compared with classic 
literature, have been an acceptable prelude for infantile 
imagination. The fables season it with wholesome 
character truths. Fairy-tales, mythologies, and tales 
of chivalry, when winnowed, inspire chivalric senti- 
ments. "Who that was brought up on Hawthorne's 
Tanglewood Tales can estimate the service they ren- 
dered him ? " * 

III. Intermediate Methods. — Boys and girls have 

* Winship. 



136 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

vivid imaginations. Tlieir ideals are not loftj, but 
thej are well defined. You are often surprised at the 
materialistic and personal nature of the ideals of this 
period. But the experience, so far, has been largely 
material. The pupil can j^ut nothing in his ideals but 
his personal experiences. You must not expect too 
much. Pupils of this age are incapable of sustained 
flights ; this fact indicates the teaching and the litera- 
ture now demanded. 

1. Lead the picpils to write original compositions. 
Whenever the popil tells w^hat he knows in his own 
way, it is original. The ideas are old, but the combina- 
tion is new. You must not expect too much ; imagina- 
tion is still feeble and its products crude. Only man- 
age to have pupils to construct daily, as best they can, 
brief compositions. No other work gives such vigor 
and discipline to imagination. For detailed methods 
you are referred to the excellent language-lesson manuals. 

2. Lead the pupil to construct his geography XDorld. 
In the primary school a foundation was laid in actual 
experience. This experience must now be greatly ex- 
tended. Charts, globes, maps, molding-boards, etc., must 
be provided. I^ow the real work begins. The pupil 
has never seen a mountain. He has seen hills of various 
heights ; out of his hill experiences he must construct a 
mountain. This is an achievement for the boy as great 
as that of the creation of Paradise Lost for the man. 
You lead your pupils to victory after victory. Their 
geography world grows larger and larger. They begin 
to be able to appropriate the experiences of others. 
Give them time. For detailed plans of work you are re- 
ferred to the valuable manuals of methods in geography. 



METHODS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. I37 

3. Interest your jpujpils in juvenile literature. Yuu 
will do most for them in this way. Teaching what to 
read and how to read is the most valuable school work. 
Without dictating, manage to have your pupils read 
only the lest. Take a few minutes daily and read 
with your pupils some choice book. Eobinson Crusoe 
is one of the very best for this purpose, and will in- 
tensely interest your pupils for many weeks. McDon- 
ald's Sir Gibbie is a treasure, and will engage you dur- 
ing several months. 

4. Lead the pupil to create his history world. Grad- 
ually you lead your pupils to substitute history for fic- 
tion. Eead with them two or three of the best juvenile 
histories, such as Dickens's Child History of England 
and Eggleston's United States. Lead them to construct 
in imagination the geography, the people, the scenes. 
It will become almost as real to them as if they were 
actors. In connection with the studies in literature 
and history you may impress every noble trait. 

5. Lead your pupils to teach. ISTothing is better to 
awaken interest and strengthen imagination. Have 
your pupils make most of the problems in arithmetic. 
This doubles the value of the study. Lead your pupils 
to make their own definitions and rules and invent 
their own illustrations. You must never fail to encour- 
age originality. You lead each pupil to make his own 
arithmetic. Each pupil is ready to take the class and 
teach the topic in his own way. I recommend you to 
pursue a similar course in each study. 

6. Lead the child to idealize character. "The character element 
in the processes and habits of the imagination should be early and 
largely considered. Some of the characters in Shakespeare's plays 



138 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

and Dickens's novels have such a vivifying effect that they are 
more real than the historical personages of Hume or Macaulay. In- 
deed, historic characters are real only through the imagination. 
Everything that appeals to the imagination ought at a reasonably 
early age to move on a plane above mere sentiment. It should 
be attractive, from its purpose, its earnestness." 

lY. Advanced Methods. — In youth imagination is 
very active, and its systematic culture is not less im- 
portant than that of reason. 

1. Lead the student to construct science. The fatal 
error is studying definitions, descriptions, and classifica- 
tions in books and nothing more. No wonder that 
stupidity rather than power is the result. What is the 
educational method ? Clearly the student must begin 
with realities, and work up to ideals. Books and teach- 
ers suggest, direct, give information. The student ex- 
periences everything and images everything. The 
learner sees, feels, touches, tastes, and smells the plant. 
He analyzes and synt-hetizes it. He compares it with 
other plants. In imagination he constructs the typical 
plant and associates with it a name. So at every step 
knowledge is both actualized and realized. 

2. Lead the learner to construct history. For the 
time the student is a Greek. He visits in imagination 
the cities and valleys and mountains of Greece. He 
worships at the shrines of the Grecian gods. E'ow he 
takes part in the siege of Troy, fights by the side of 
Ajax or Achilles. He helps build the wooden horse. 
ISTow he fights^ bleeds, and dies at Thermopylae. Thus 
imagination enables him to put himself in their place 
and thus understand the Greeks. Greece, Greeks, 
Grecian history, Grecian literature, become a part of 



DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTURE OF IMAGINATION. I39 

himself. In the same way we study Roman, German, 
English, and American history. 

3. Lead tJie student at every step to make concrete 
the abstract. Few can understand thoroughly abstract 
truths without first considering the concrete basis. It 
is well to say, "Honesty is the best policy"; but it 
needs to be illustrated. Mr. Jones from boyhood has 
been known for integrity. Every one respects and trusts 
him. He has gradually accumulated a competence and 
is happy. In his case honesty proved to be the best 
policy. The habit of illustrating everything is invalu- 
able. Only in this way can we build on the rock and 
firmly grasp general truths. 

4. Lead the student to study art from the stand- 
point of the artist. The artist created these ideals ; 
creating them over again educates imagination. How 
much more does it develo^^ imagination to create origi- 
nal ideals and strive to realize them ! 

5. Lead the student to form and try to realize an 
ideal character. From the lives of the grand and 
great of all ages we construct an ideal life, our highest 
conception of a grand manhood. ]^ow we think and 
feel and will to realize in ourselves the ideal. 

YII. General Directions for the Culture of 
Imagination. 

Concise rules for imagination-culture may prove 
helpful 

'' a. Create your world of geography. 

. -r, . . , h. Create your world of history. 

1. Be original : ^ ^, . i j « 4. 

I c. Create your world of geometry. 

d. Create your social world. 

2. Form high ideals and work up to them. 



140 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

3. Associate with the pure and good. 

.,,,,. , \ a. Low literature. 

4. Avoid bad hterature : \ ^^ ^^^^ literature. 

5. Read wisely the best literature. Poetry and fiction come first. 
The real novelist is a genius, a man whose stock in trade is a knowl- 
edge of men. His story is the portrayal in print of actual charac- 
ters, idealized and so combined and interwoven as to reveal the mo- 
tives which actuate mankind. The reading of such an author 
leaves us richer in the knowledge of men, and enables us to judge, 
speak, and act more wisely. 

YIII. ErROKS in EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 

We have here errors of omission as well as of com- 
mission. No feature of our educational work is now 
in greater need of reform. 

1. Bepeating instead of unemorizing. By dint of 
repetition, forms and statement are acquired. But the 
labor is immense and the tendency is to weaken invent- 
iveness and make plodders rather than originators. 
Imagining, illustrating, actualizing, enable the learner 
to realize things. He now feels delight and remembers 
with little effort. 

2. Drudgery instead of mastery. This is the domi- 
nant educational sin of our times. The student is 
weighted down with facts. Thus, instead of the pow- 
erful and fleet Arabian steed we get the stupid dray- 
horse. 

3. Too much explaining. The school of to-day has perhaps no 
phase more vicious than the habit of explaining everything so fully 
that the mind has little stimulus to wrestle with problems ; has al- 
most nothing left with which the imagination can play. From the 
first hour of school life to the last, the teacher's opportunities for 
directing and training the imagination are limitless. There is 
scarcely a fact so patent, a problem so simple, or discipline so trying, 
that the teacher may not, if she will, enliven the hour and intensify 



ERRORS IN EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 141 

the thought and ennoble the character by an appeal more or less 
definite to the imagination. 

4. Saying instead of doing. Describing a tree helps, 
but drawing a tree is better. Saying the tables is well, 
but actual weighing and measuring are better, as the 
learner is thus enabled to construct tables. Let draw- 
ing, molding, and constructing take the place of mere 
saying. 

5. Leaving imagination to roam fancy free. The 
student needs to learn to draw sharp distinctions be- 
tween reals and ideals. Then he needs constantly to 
subject his ideals to unsparing criticism. Thus may be 
prevented a dreamy, sickly, sentimental life. 

6. Cherishing or even tolerating low ideals. " Like 
gods like people," expresses our tendency to become 
like our ideals. " Let me write the songs for the people 
and you may make the laws." Boys and girls saturated 
with low literature form low ideals, and will likely live 
low lives. 

Y. Neglect of imagination-culture. The culture of 
imagination seems to be more uniformly neglected than 
that of any other faculty. The ability to represent 
correctly to one's self a thing, a scene, a person, a story, 
from a verbal description is very rare. Few pupils in 
studying history, geography, or astronomy, form any 
distinct and true pictures of what is described. Fewer 
still are able to create ideal personages and scenes. 
Training of the imagination should result not only in 
capacity to receive, but in power to create. 



142 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS 

I. Helpful Books. — Much has been written about imagination, 
but not much that will help the teacher. " The notion," says Sully, 
" that the educator has a special work to do in educating and guid- 
ing the imagination of the young is a comparatively new one." Por- 
ter, McCosh, James, and others give us good suggestions in their psy- 
chologies. But, for the most part, you will need to glean. Shake- 
speare, Shelley, Bro\7ning, Ruskin, etc., abound in good things calcu- 
lated to develop imagination. Emerson's essays are gems. 

II. Letter. — Give your friend your views on the education of 
imagination. In this you will need to think as well as to imagine. 
The effort will repay you. Your views will grow clearer and your 
grasp of the subject larger as you attempt to make it plain to an- 
other. 

III. Memory, Phantasy, Imagination. — Define each and illustrate 
the distinctions you make between these powers. Do you prefer 
these names, or reproductive, passive, and constructive imagina- 
tion ? Why ? Do we educate phantasy ? 

IV. Importance of educating Imagination. — Name three reasons 
why you consider the culture of this power im^portant. How do you 
account for the neglect of this culture? 

V. Growth of Imagination. — Show the growth of imagination as 
indicated by the compositions of the child ; of the boy ; of the youth ; 
of the man. How early does the child create crude ideals ? Do writ- 
ers always distinguish between child phantasy and child imagination ? 
When does imagination become fully active ? Prove that this power 
may be kept vigorous even in old age. 

VI. Laws of Imagination-Growth. — State the three general laws 
in terms of imagination. State and illustrate two special laws. Give 
a special law that you have discovered. Why do you call it a law? 

VII. Means for promoting the Growth of Imagination. — What 
studies do you consider of the highest value for this purpose? 
Why ? Give Dr. Payne's estimates. 

VIII. Methods of educating Imagination. — Outline your notion 
of kindergarten methods ; of primary methods ; of intermediate 
methods ; of high-school methods ; of college methods. Give your 
plan for teaching geography, history, language lessons. 

IX. Mistakes in educating Imagination. — What mistake in edu- 



CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 143 

eating imagination do you esteem most hurtful ? Why ? May the 
teacher do too much explaining? aSTarae some errors that you have 
observed. How do you propose to lead your pupils to form pure 
and lofty ideals ? 



CHAPTER XL 

CULTURE OF THE EEPEESENTATIVE POWERS. 

Here representation means memory and imagina- 
tion. The earnest teacher asks, How can I so teach as 
to best develop these powers ? What vahiable sugges- 
tions do educators give to aid me in my efforts to cul- 
tivate memory and imagination? This chapter, it is 
hoped, will help you in your efforts to find answers to 
these questions. We mean by the culture of our repre- 
sentative powers the development of our capabilities to 
represent our experiences in old and new forms. The 
old forms are memories / the new forms are ideals. 

Phantasy is not considered, as it is not susceptible of cultivation. 
Self in dreams and revery, without purpose or plan, spontaneously 
weaves his experiences into fancies. This is phantasy. Self is 
aware of beholding these panoramas, but not of making them ; they 
seem at the time to be new experiences. Phantasy is active in child- 
hood and in the weak-minded, and is often mistaken for imagination, 
or called the passive imagination. The teacher and the physician 
as well as the psychologist must needs study phantasy and its office 
in the mental economy. Its activity affects our lives more than we 
are willing to admit. As the artist gains innumerable suggestions 
from the kaleidoscope, so we gain innumerable suggestions froih our 
fancies. Phantasy, though most active during repose, is certainly 
in some degree active at all times. Many persons dream away their 
lives ; they do not think and do not imagine ; they drift. The dreamy 
child or adult must be awakened. We can not educate phantasy, 
but we can manage it. We accept its hints for what they are worth. 



144 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

We refuse to dream when awake ; we work. We occupy ourselves 
with good thoughts and high ideals and useful deeds, and thus leave 
no place for revery. Phantasy is marvelously affected by the condi- 
tions of our bodies ; these we can largely control. We refuse to let 
the vagaries of phantasy mislead us. Early and always we fill our 
lives so full of realities and ideals and thoughts and deeds that there 
is no room for vagaries. 

I. Memory and Imagination. — Deeper insight into 
the mental economy awakens ever-increasing wonder. 
Each native energy of self is unique, is elemental. As 
gravity and cohesion and electricity and the rest are 
elementary forces in the physical world, so perception 
and memory and our other powers are elementary ener- 
gies in the mind-world. As in the matter-world the 
various physical forces work in harmony to produce 
physical results, so in the mind-world all the native en- 
ergies of self co-operate, supplementing and re-enforcing 
each other in producing mental results. Thus it is that 
our simplest acts are wonderfully complex. "We must 
learn to think of self as doing each act of knowing, 
feeling, and willing, and of our capabilities as merely 
native energies of self. For convenience we personify 
each faculty, as when we say, " Memory recalls and 
imagination creates ^ But these are figures of speech. 
Memory is self remembering and imagination is self 
imagining. Psychological insight clears away the 
mists, and we behold self doing each mental act. 

1. Self as memory does all Ms recalling. Imagination does not 
recall any more than does reason. Self as imagination constructs, 
but memory supplies imagination with materials, and also stores and 
recalls its products. In the same way memory furnishes reason with 
materials and also stores and recalls its products. Our experiences 
die as soon as completed. As soon as we cease to be aware of our 



CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 145 

acquisitions they cease to exist. Storing knowledge, retaining ideas, 
impressing on memory, and similar figurative expressions, mean 
simply associating ideas. We assimilate our old and new experi- 
ences into organic unity. We so systematize and associate our ideas 
that present experiences suggest past experiences. This is recalling, 
this is memory. We recognize our remembrances as former experi- 
ences. Eradicate memory and we become incapable of thought or 
imagination. Memory is the only capability of self to recall, and 
we embody in this term all processes connected with recalling. 
Memory includes association, suggestion, reproduction, representa- 
tion, and recognition. 

2. Self as imagination creates all his ideals. All 
products of imagination are ideals as opposed to reali- 
ties. Imagination is simply the native energy of self 
to construct ideals. Because imagination makes present 
to us again our experiences in new and picturesque 
forms, we say it is a representative power ; but it must 
be emphasized again and again that memory recalls the 
experiences out of which imagination makes the ideals. 
Culture of memory is the development of our recalling 
power; culture of imagination is the development of 
our creative power. 

II. Ideals. — Ideals are products of imagination, and 
are our nearest mental approach to perfection. " The 
ideal," says Fleming, "is to be attained by selecting 
and assimilating into one whole the perfections of 
many individuals, excluding everything defective." 
The teacher and the student gain deeper insight into 
the nature of the producer by studying the products. 
Thus the psychologist gains many of his best lessons 
from language and literature and art. Through the 
study of ideals we become familiar with our creative 
power and its culture. 

10 



146 APrLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

1. Ideals are ideas and objects blended into harmony. Some 
years since the notion occurred to me that I might regulate my 
school by bells that would ring automatically. The programme clock 
helped me. I now invented an attachment to so connect battery and 
bells with the clock that it would strike my programme. The idea and 
the object were thus blended in harmony. This was my ideal elec- 
tric programme clock. I then proceeded to place bells in the various 
rooms and make the connections as planned. At last I set my clock 
so as to ring my programme. It worked well. I had realized my 
ideal. I used this crude invention to regulate my school for nearly 
twenty years. 

2. Ideal of intellectual greatness. At certain times 
we observe ourselves at our best. I^ow we acquire with 
surprising ease ; now imagination towers ; now our 
thoughts are penetrating. We observe ourselves at these 
supremest moments and learn what high intellectual ac- 
tivity means. Through reading, hearing, and observ- 
ing, we appropriate the experiences of the mightiest 
men at their best. 

" Then from ourselves as known to ourselves we 
eliminate all dullness, vacillation, forgetfulness, confu 
sion, and all other sources of intellectual weakness; 
while we retain and combine into permanent form all 
the exhibitions of superior intellectual power that have 
been revealed to us, and this combination constitutes 
our ideal of intellectual greatness. This ideal, though 
composed of what was ultimately experienced in our- 
selves, is so much superior to ourselves that it perpetu- 
ally acts as a stimulus to higher intellectual activity." * 
Our efforts to realize this ideal tend to make intellect- 
ual greatness. 

3. Ideal of moral greatness. We observe ourselves 

* Larkin Dunton. 



CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. I47 

at our best moments. IRow our whole being thrills 
with philanthropic impulses ; now we resist fearful 
temptations ; now we discharge trying duties. We 
observe ourselves at our supreme moments and learn 
what high moral activity means. Through observing 
and hearing and recalling we appropriate the experi- 
ences of great moral heroes. Then from our accumu- 
lated experiences we create our ideals of moral great- 
ness. These ideals become a perpetual stimulus to 
higher moral activity. 

4. Ideal of teaching greatness. I observe myself at 
such moments as I excel in teaching. Now I hold the 
entire attention ; now I lead the pupils to put forth 
their best efforts ; now I inspire my pupils to act nobly. 
By observing myself at these supreme moments I learn 
what high teaching power means. Through observing 
and hearing and reading I now appropriate the best 
experiences of the great teachers. Their experiences 
become mine. Out of my accumulated experiences I 
select the best and construct my ideal of teaching 
greatness. This ideal becomes a constant and powerful 
stimulus to higher teaching activity. Well-directed 
efforts to realize this ideal tend to make me a greater 
teacher. 

5. The ideal is a preparation for the actual. Our 
rational acts are planned. Our plans are our ideals. 
The general plans to-morrow's battle and thus organizes 
victory. The teacher plans her school before it opens 
and thus organizes success. The bride who went 
through the marriage ceremony without embarrassment 
said that she had been married in imagination a thou- 
sand times. Demosthenes had made his great oration 



148 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

many hundred times in imagination before he electri- 
fied the Athenians. 

6. Ideals lead to actions. When ideals are pure 
and ennobling they lead to pure and ennobling acts ; 
but when ideals are base and degrading they lead to 
base and degrading acts. Ko one goes to the bad 
whose imagination is not first corrupted. How super- 
latively important it is that the associations and read- 
ings of the young should be pure and elevating ! 

7. Ideals grow. The artist's ideal is the highest he 
can now create ; but the widened experiences of other 
years will enable him to make vastly higher ideals. 
Child ideals are low and crude ; boy ideals are higher ; 
youth ideals are vastly higher. My ideal of teaching 
greatness now is much higher than that of twenty years 
ago. We make our ideals as high as we can to-day, 
but to-morrow's experience will enable us to construct 
higher ideals. Slowly and little by little the child writes 
its crude composition ; the man plans his essay in ad- 
vance, and writes with a master-hand. What are the 
ideals of your pupils ? How will you lead them to form 
higher ideals % You look well to the ideas of those under 
your care. Is it not even more important that you 
should look well to their ideals ? 

III. Time to memorize. — Memorizing in its best 
sense is the assimilation and association of our new 
acquisitions. 

Mr. Bain says that memorizing is an exercise which 
makes the greatest demands upon the nervous energies ; 
that the use of ideas in the making of new combinations 
— in new constructions — demands a less degree of 
brain-vigor, and that writing, drawing, and searching 



CULTURE OP THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 149 

reference-books for information, and noting what is 
found, make the least demands upon the nervous power. 

" There are periods of the day that can be most economically 
employed for memorizing and other severe intellectual labor, and 
others for performing the lighter and easier work. The three peri- 
ods of greatest mental vigor are : (1) in the morning for three or 
four hours after breakfast ; (2) for two or three hours following a 
period of rest after dinner ; and (3) one or two hours following a 
period of rest after supper. The adult mind will use time most 
economically if he shall employ its periods of greatest vigor in mak- 
ing new acquisitions, reserving its constructive work for periods of 
less mental energy, and setting apart all merely mechanical and 
routine labor for those portions of the day when the mind is least 
vigorous. With the child, memorizing is easier than construction, 
since the constructive powers have not yet reached their full devel- 
opment." * 

The elementary school " will always have the char- 
acter of memory-work stamped upon it, no matter how 
much the educational reformer may improve its meth- 
ods. It is not eas}^ to overvalue the impulse of such 
men as Pestalozzi and Froebel. But the child's mind 
can not seize great syntheses. He bites off, as it were, 
only small fragments of truth at best. He gets isolated 
data, and sees only feebly the vast network of interre- 
lation in the world. This fragmentary, isolated charac- 
ter belongs essentially to primary education. But just 
as surely does secondary education deal with relations 
and functions and processes. It is the stage of crude 
generalization. But college education strives to induce 
on the mind the habit of seeing the unity of things." f 

IV. Conditions of Effective Association.:}: — There are some well- 
defined conditions under which ideas may be acquired and grouped 

* George P. Brown. f W. T. Harris. 

X Larkin Dunton. 



150 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

in the mind, which increase the probability that the presence of an 
idea will be followed by the idea of a similar thing, and that, on the 
representation of one of a group of ideas, the whole group will be 
represented. 

1. The longer ideas are kept before the mind, or the less the 
lapse of time since ideas were in the mind, the greater is the proba- 
bility that these ideas will be represented. It is not what we mere- 
ly see, or hear, or read, that is most likely to be revived ; but what 
we reflect upon and discuss. It is not what we heard ten years ago 
that we discuss to-day, but what we have recently heard. 

Aged people often recall the scenes of childhood with more full- 
ness than those of recent years. This appears to be an exception to 
the rule ; but the exception is only apparent, for there are other in- 
fluences at work. But the exception does not hold in regard to re- 
cent events. The events of to-day are more easily recalled by the 
aged than those of a week ago. 

2. The more frequently ideas are present in the mind and 
grouped together, the greater the probability that they will be rep- 
resented, and in the order in which they have been arranged be- 
fore. The parts of our homes which we have known together day 
after day have left such an impression upon our minds that an idea 
of one part is at once followed by the ideas of all the parts. It is 
the presence of ideas, not that of words, which creates the tendency 
to representation. 

3. The more intense the attention while a group of ideas is be- 
fore the mind, the greater is the probability that one of the group 
will be represented on occasion of the presence of a similar idea, and 
that then the whole group will be represented. An hour of intense 
application is of more value than a day spent in turning from one 
thing to another. To secure this, require the pupil's eye to be on 
what is represented, or on the teacher, and often call for an expres- 
sion of what ought to be known. 

4. The greater the interest in the things known during the pro- 
cess of learning, the more probable is it that the ideas will be repre- 
sented. 

Y. Good Memory is Discriminating Memory. — A good 
memory has its obvious advantages ; but a good mem- 
ory is something more than merely a retentive memory. 



CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 151 

It is quite as important to shut one's memory against 
that which should be forgotten, and against that which 
is not worth remembering, as to open one's memory to 
that which is worthy of being borne in mind. A mem- 
ory that receives and holds important facts and truths, 
while it rejects those which are unimportant, is far pref- 
erable to a memory that is always overloaded with 
things good, bad, and indifferent. Deciding what to 
remember, and remembering that, is better than re- 
membering everything. 

VI. Blackie's Self-Culture of Memory. — It is of no use gathering 
treasures if we can not store them ; it is equally useless to learn what 
we can not retain in the memory. Happily, of all mental faculties 
memory is that one which is most certainly improved by exercise ; 
besides, there are helps to a weak memory such as do not exist for a 
weak imagination or a weak reasoning power. The most important 
points to be attended to in securing the retention of facts are : (1) 
The distinctness, vividness, and intensity of the original impression. 
Let no man hope to remember what he only vaguely and indistinctly 
apprehends. It is better for the memory to have a distinct idea of 
one fact of a great subject, than to have confused ideas of the whole. 
(2) Nothing helps the memory so much as order and classification. 
Classes are always few, individuals many ; to know the class w^ell is 
to know what is most essential in the character of the individual, 
and what least burdens the memory to retain. (3) The next impor- 
tant matter is repetition : if the nail will not go in at one stroke, let 
it have another and another. In this domain nothing is denied to a 
dogged pertinacity. (4) Again, if memory be weak, causality is per- 
haps strong ; and this point of strength, if wisely used, may readily 
be made to turn an apparent loss into a real gain, (5) Lastly, what- 
ever facilities of memory you may possess, despise not the sure aids 
so amply supplied by written record. To retain stores of readily 
available matter, in the shape of written or printed record, enables 
a man to command a vast amount of accumulated materials, at 
whatever moment he may require them. 



PAET III. 
EDUCATION OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS, 



CHAPTER XII.— The Thought-Powers and Thought-Know- 
ing. 
XIII. — ^Education of Conception. 
XIV. — Education of Judgment. 
XV. — Education of Reason. 
XVI. — CuLTUBE of the Thought-Powers. 



THE INTELLECT. 

COGNITIVE POWERS, COGNITIVE PROCESSES, AND COGNITIVE PRODUCTS. 



REASON. REASONING. REASONS. 



;^^ JUDGMENT, JUDGING, JUDGMENTS. 



■*f Conception, Conceiving, Concepts, 



IMAGINATION, IMAGINING, IMAGINATIONS. 



4fi" PHANTASY, FANCYING, FANCIES. 



EMORYi REMEMBERING, MEMORIES. 



NECESSARY 
PERCEPTION, 



NECESSARY 
PERCEIVING, 



N ECESSARY 
PERCE PTS. 



<iri Sclf-Perception, Self-Perc£iving, Self-Percepts. 
'AT Sense-Perception, Sense-Perceiving, Sense-Percepts 



As gravity is the fundamental physical force, so perception is the 
fundamental psychical energy. Sense-perception is the base of the 
cognitive pyramid and reason the crown. As we ascend we find 
that each capability rests on and is chronologically and psycho- 
logically dependent on all the capabilities below it ; as, for example, 
imagination could not act but for perception and memory. Tliis 
psychological insight is confirmed by practical experience, as the 
practice of all educators proves. Teachers now uniformly present 
the intellectual powers in the above order. The claim that these 
powers are not elemental, but merely eddies in the stream of thought, 
forms of consciousness, modes of analysis and synthesis, is based, as 
I think, on the failure to discern clearly the co-operative nature of 
the mental economy. When we once gain the insight that each 
capability of self supplements and re-enforces all his other powers, it 
is not difficult to gain the deeper insight that the stream of thought 
and assimilation and analysis and synthesis and apperception are in 
reality resultant co-operative processes. Each capability is a native 
energy of self, and is elemental in the mental economy. 



PART THIRD. 
EDUCATION OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS. 



CHAPTER XIL 

THE THOUGHT-POWERS AND THOUGHT-KNOWING. 

Thinking is discerning relations. The relations be- 
tween things are as real as the things themselves. Our 
thought-powers are our capabilities to discern these re- 
lations. Self as thought discerns relations and assimi- 
lates his experiences into thought-unity. Thinking is 
the crowning act of knowing. 

I. The Thought-Powers. — We discover that some 
things are related to other things by common proper- 
ties ; we discern these group relations and think indi- 
viduals into classes ; our capability to do this is termed 
conception. We discover that our notions agree or dis- 
agree ; that they are related as true or false ; we discern 
truth relations and think our notions into truths ; our 
capability to do this is termed jitdgment. Finally, we 
discover that the universe is a cause-unit ; we discover 
cause relations and think truths into reasons and sys- 
tems ; our power to do this is termed reason. 



THE THOUGHT POWERS ARE 




156 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

II. Thouglit-Processes. — "We discern class relations 
and think things into groups. Thus we think our 
notions of individual birds into the concept bird ; this 
is conceiving. We discern truth relations and think 
our ideas into truths. Thus we think our notions, high 
and mountains, into the truth, inountains are high i 



THINKING IS 




this is judging. We discern cause relations and think 
truths into reasons. Thus we think our judgments^ 
men have rights and slaves are men, into the con- 
clusion, slaves have rights j this is reasoning. Dis 
cerning sameness is the " keel and backbone of think- 
ing." 

III. Thought-Products. — Conceiving is thinking our 
notions of individuals into notions of classes ; group 
notions are termed general notions, or conceptions, or 
concepts. Judging is thinking our notions into truths ; 
sentences express truths or judgments Reasoning is 
thinking judgments into reasons. Interlocked judg- 
ments express reasons. 



THOUGHT PRODUCTS ARE 




lY. Thought-Knowing is Mediate Knowing. — Through 
the medium of particular notions we reach general no- 



THE THOUGHT-POWERS AND THOUGHT-KNOWING. 157 

tions. Through the mediurrb of particular and general 
notions we reach truths. Through the medium of 
related judgments we reach conclusions. Perceptive 
knowing is immediate knowing, but thought-knowing 
is mediate knowing. 




V. The Thouglit-Powers are our Comparative Powers. — " Even as 

the objects perceived to be related are real, so also are the relations 
discerned. Man's knowledge begins with things. We discern the 
relations of things known ; we discern the relations because we 
know the things. I am sure that we discern eight kinds of relations : 

1. Identity, We see a tree in blossom ; we recognize the tree as the 
same we saw yesterday, though the blossoms are further advanced. 

2. Whole and parts. We consider separately the blossoms, but as 
blossoms of the tree. 3. Resemblance. We notice that the tree 
resembles other trees standing near it. 4. Space. We observe the 
shape and size of the tree. 5. Time. We calculate how long the 
blossoms will continue. 6. Quantity. We try to estimate the num- 
ber of blossoms. 7. Active property. We find that they emit a 
pleasant odor. 8. Cause and effect. We observe that some are blown 
away by the wind. Thinking is discerning relations ; but we dis- 
cern the relations of things. In order to discover relations we must 
compare; hence our powers to think are our comparative powers. 
These are our faculties to discern relations." * 

VI. Logic and Psychology. — Psychology gives insight into the 
nature of the thought-processes ; logic gives insight into the laws 
and forms of thought. Psychology asks, " What does self do when 
he thinks ? " Logic asks, " How may we so think as to reach 
truth I" Formal logic shows us the laws of the judgment and the 
syllogism. E. J. Hamiltons says, " Logic is the science of the operas 
tions and products of the rational faculty in the pursuit and use of 
truth." You are referred to works on logic for the extended treat- 

* McCosh 



158 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

ment of this subject. The brief discussion here is directed to the 
psychological view, and may help by way of review and sugges- 
tion. 

VII. Thinking is healthful. — " It is not intellectual work that 
injures the brain," the London Hospital says, " but emotional excite- 
ment. Most men can stand the severest thought and study of which 
their brains are capable, and be none the worse for it, for neither 
thought nor study interferes with the recuperative influence of 
sleep. It is ambition, anxiety, disappointment, the hopes and fears, 
the loves and hates of our lives that wear out our nervous system 
and endanger the balance of the brain." " Peaceful mathematics," 
" peaceful philosophy," " peaceful literature " express the nature of 
thought. Our great thinkers ought to be healthy, happy, and long- 
lived. 

I. Conception and Conceptive Knowing. 

Self as conception gains general notions. Concep- 
tion is self conceiving. This is the native energy of 
self to think particular notions into general notions. I 
gain the particular notions, this and this tree, this and 
this shrub, this and this plant ; I think these particular 
notions into the general notion vegetables. As the 
reaper grasps and binds the grain into bundles, so self 
as conception grasps and binds his percepts into con- 
cepts. 

I. Conceiving, Conception, Concepts. — We intuitively 
gain notions of individual things, and we call these no- 
tions intuitions, percepts, particular notions. You see 
this new three-bladed, pearl-handled knife ; your notion 
of this knife is a particular notion, a percept. As you 
make this notion out of sensations, you call it a sense- 
percept. You gain percepts of many different knives, 
and think these particular notions into the general no- 
tion Jcnife. This notion applies to all knives ; it is gen- 
eral. You think all knives as one group of things. 



CONCEPTION AND CONCEPTIVE KNOWING. 159 

You call tills a class-notion. As you grasp or bind all 
your particular knife-notions into one notion knife, you 
call this a general notion, a concejpt. Conception is the 
capability to gain concepts. The brute is lost in a wil- 
derness of particulars. The savage makes crude classi- 
fications like those of children. The scientist thinks 
the wilderness of individuals into a few classes, and 
thus begins to make science. Conceiving is discerning 
class relations ; conception is the power to gain class 
notions ; concepts are general notions. 

II. Percepts and Concepts. — As we make our sense, 
percepts out of our sensations, so we make our sense- 
concepts out of our sense-percepts. As we make our 
self-percepts out of our awareness, so we make our self- 
concepts out of our self percepts. Thus, too, we make 
our necessary -concepts out of our necessary-percepts. 
Percepts are the stuff out of which we make our con- 
cepts. An idea is either a particular notion or a gen- 
eral notion. Our particular notions are our percepts 
and our general notions are our conceptions or concepts. 
When we think oi percepts we think of particular no- 
tions, and when we tliink of concepts we think of gen- 
eral notions. Only when we wish to be specific do we 
speak of sense-percepts, self-percepts^ and necessary- 
percepts ; or of sense-concepts, self -concepts, and neces- 
sary-concepts. 

" A Conception is not a Mental Picture.— Perceptions relate to in- 
dividual objects ; conceptions relate to general classes or to abstrac- 
tions—such is the current doctrine of psychology— and the mental 
acts of perceiving and conceiving form the most important topics of 
psychology. What constitutes a general notion or conception? It 
is not a mental image, but a definition The general notion tree 
should include all trees of whatever description, and it is expressed 



160 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

by a definition. But no sooner do I attempt to conceive the notion 
tree than I form a mental image, but the image is not general 
enough to suit the notion. No particular image of any object in 
any class can be general enough to satisfy the definition. Every 
image must be of an individual, and the definition is broad enough 
to include all individuals. The definition serves as a rule by which 
we form an image which will illustrate it. The difference between 
the conception and the specimen is known to the child and the 
savage, though it is not consciously reflected upon. Take a differ- 
ent class of conceptions. Take the abstractions of color, taste, 
smell, sound, or touch — for example, redness, sourness, fragrance, 
loudness, and hardness. Our conception includes infinite degrees 
of possible intensity, while our image or recalled experience is of 
some definite degree, and does not correspond to the general notion. 

" Let us take more general notions, such as force, matter, qual- 
ity, being. If some image or example of these can be called up, it 
is felt to be a special example that covers only a very small part of 
the whole field. An image, strictly considered, can not be made of 
force at all, nor of any special example of force. We can image 
some object that is acted upon by a force. We can image it before 
it is acted upon and after it is acted upon — that is, we can image 
the results of the force, but not the force itself. 

" If we conceive existence, and image some existent things ; if we 
conceive quantity in general and image a series of things that can 
be numbered, or an extension or degree that may be measured; if 
we conceive relation in general and try to illustrate it by imaging 
particular objects between which there is relation — in all these 
and similar cases we can hardly help being conscious of the vast 
difference between the image and the conception. In realizing the 
conception of relation, as in that of force or energy, we do not 
image even an example or specimeTi of a relation or force, but we 
image only the conditions or termini of a specimen relation ; but 
the relation itself must be thought, just as any force must be 
thought, but can not be imagined. We can think relations but not 
image them." * 

III. Conceptive Processes. — Conception stands for 
classification as memory stands for remembering. The 

* Dr. W. T. Harris. 



CONCEPTION AND CONCEPTIVE KNOWING. 161 

steps by which we reach general notions must be 
counted as merely processes in conceiving ; these are 
exj)erie7iGe, comparison^ abstraction^ generalization^ 
classification^ and naming. 

1. Comparison. That we may discover common 
properties and discern class relations we must compare 
things. Comparison here includes experience ; thought 
deals with ideas, not with things. When we conceive 
we compare our ideas of things and not the things 
themselves ; but we gain our ideas through experiences. 
"We find that these figures are three-sided and those 
four-sided ; we find that these apples are red and those 
white. This is observing and com/paring. 

2. Abstraction. This is leaving out of considera- 
tion the many properties that we may consider things 
with reference to a single property. We disregard 
everything else, and consider these figures with refer- 
ence to the number of sides and these apples with refer- 
ence to color. This is ahstracting. 

3. Generalization. This is finding a common prop- 
erty and extending it to many individuals. This figure 
and this and this are three-sided ; three-sidedness is 
general to them ; we generalize by extending this prop- 
erty so as to include all three-sided figures. This is 
generalization. 

4. Classification. This is grouping things into 
classes. We have abstracted number of sides as the 
basis for classifying these figures. These figures all 
have the general property of three-sidedness, and we 
think them into the three-sided figure group ; but those 
have the general property of four-sidedness, and we 
think them into the four-sided figure group. As a basis 

11 



162 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

for classifying these apples we abstracted color. These 
apples have the general property red, and we think 
them into the red-apple group ; those have the general 
property wliite, and we think them into the white-apple 
group. We discern sameness as to form, and thus 
think all figures into a few classes. This is classifying. 
5. Naming. This is giving names to our general 
notions. We call our three-angled figure group tri- 
angles and our four-angled group quadrangles. We 
have reached these general notions and named them ; 
conception can go no further. When we think of con- 
ception we do not think of these processes, but simply 
of self thinking his particular notions into general no- 
tions. Conceiving is discerning class relations, and is 
the first step in thinking. 

II. Judgment, Judging, and Judgments. 

Tlie native energy of self to think his notions into 
truths is called judgment. We judge when we discern 
truth-relations. Kant %oas a philosopher. We discern 
the agreement of the notions, philosopher and Kant, 
and think them together into the truth. 

Self as judgment discerns and asserts the agree- 
ment of notions, as, pleasures are fleeting. Self as 
judgment discerns and asserts the disagreement as well 
as the agreement of notions, as, teachers are not infal- 
lible. Judgment is the truth-discerning power of the 
soul, and is considered one of the most important and 
fruitful of all our faculties. 

1. A judgment is the assertion of a truth. Truth 
is correspondence with reality, as sugar is sweet. Un- 
truth is the assertion of agreement which does not ac- 



JUDGMENT, JUDGING, AND JUDGMENTS. 163 

cord with reality, as the earth is square. Self as judg- 
ment discerns the untruthfulness of this proposition 
and changes it into a truth by inserting not. We 
express our judgments in propositions which we call 
sentences ; hence, judgment is sometimes termed b^r 
sentence-making faculty. 

2. Synthetic and analytic judgments. We embody 
and treasure our knowledge in sentences, and thus we 
connect all our progress in the acquisition of knowl- 
edge with sentence-making. Synthetic judgments ex- 
tend our knowledge by making new predications, as 
cows are ruminating animals. To his previous knowl- 
edge of cows the learner now adds a new characteristic. 
Analytic judgments make our knowledge fuller and 
clearer by predicating component parts or properties, 
as hirds have wings, or gold is yellow. 

3. Processes in discerning truth. The steps in 
forming judgments are judging processes. Take the 
two notions sponge and animal. We compare these 
notions. A doubt arrests us. " Is the sponge animal 
or vegetable % " We investigate and find that sponges 
are really animals. We discern the agreement of the 
notions, and thinh of the sponge as animal. Finally, 
we express the judgment in the sentence, sponges are 
animals. But no one thinks of these processes when 
judging, any more than the orator thinks of the ele- 
mentary sounds when addressing his audience. From 
early childhood we constantly judge, so that an act of 
judging comes to seem to us to be a single simple step. 

4. Percepts, concepts, and judgments. Percepts 
and concepts are the materials out of which self makes 
his judgments. Solomon was wise / all men are falli- 



1G4: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

lie. In the first, the subject is a percept ; but in the 
second, the subject is a concept. In these cases, and in 
fact in all judgments, the predicates are concepts. Self 
as judgment elaborates his ideas into judgments. Judg- 
ing is discerning truth relations, and is the second step 
in thinking. 

Kant defines judgment as the faculty that discerns examples of 
universals. It is regarded as the faculty that adapts means to ends 
and discriminates applications. One with a good judgment is called 
a wise man. From the educational standpoint, however, it is deemed 
best to treat judgment as the power to discern and assert truth. 

III. EeASON, REASONINa, AND ReASONS. 

Reason is the native energy of self to discern 
grounds and reach conclusions. Whenever we say in- 
telligently hecaicse^ hence, therefore, we reason. Rea- 
soning is grasping the relation of two judgments into a 
conclusion. Thus : 

All mammals are vertebrates ; 
The horse is a mammal ; 
. * . The horse is a vertebrate. 
Self as reason infers conclusions from premises. 
Through two related truths we discern a new truth. 
Reason is the capability to originate a judgment ex- 
pressing the relations of two given judgments. The 
constitution of things is such that, certain related truths 
being known, we can infer other truths. You know 
that x=^y and that y = s ; and you infer that x = z. 
Reason is the power of inference. 

Keason in the Mental Economy. — Infinite reason planned the uni- 
verse. All things from atoms to systems of worlds are unitized by 
cause-relations. Cause and effect, means and ends, antecedent and 
consequent, link all into unity. Endowed with reason, we think 



REASON, REASONING, AND REASONS. 165 

the thoughts of God after him. Reason, through interlocked judg- 
ment, discerns cause-relations. Self, as reason, lays under contribu- 
tion all his other intellectual capabilities, and supplements and re- 
enforces each. We think our percepts into concepts — reason is 
there ; we remember and imagine — reason is there ; wo form judg- 
ments—reason is there ; we feel emotions of truth and beauty and 
duty — reason is there ; we choose and act — behold, reason is there. 

I. Reasoning Forms. — Reason stands for the power 
of inference. Self reasons when he infers a third truth 
from two related truths. Reasoning as to form is either 
full or abbreviated 

1. Informal and formal reasoning. Ordinarily in 
conversation, in books, in science, and in discourse we 
reason informally. We say, men are happy hecause 
they are law-abiding. This is informal reasoning, as 
the major premise is not expressed. When the argu- 
ment is stated in full it is formal reasoning, as — 

Beings who are law-abiding are happy ; 

Men are law-abiding ; 
. • . Men are happy. 
Rarely do we thus state our arguments in full ; but, in 
all cases^ the omissions are implied, and our informal 
reasons may be expanded mio formal reasons. 

2. Induction and deduction. These are merely dif- 
ferent forms of reasoning. Through particular truths 
we reach general truths. This magnet and this and this 
attract iron ; since Kature is uniform, we infer that all 
magnets attract iron. This is inductive reasoning. It 
is inferring a general truth from particular truths. 
Thus we think up to principles and laws. We deduce 
particular truths through general truths. Since all 
minerals gravitate, we infer that diamonds gravitate. 
This is deductive reasoning. It is inferring a particular 



166 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

truth from general truths. Reason is simply our capa- 
bility to discern new truths through related truths. 
Whatever form it takes it is ever the power of in- 
ference. 

II. Reasoning Processes. — These are steps which seK 
takes in reaching conclusions. When we reason we do 
not think of these processes ; we simply discern through 
the medium of known truths new truths. 

1. Regulative truths. Our notions of necessary re- 
alities and the eternal fitness of things, gained by direct 
insight, are termed necessary-ideas. Our axioms are 
our generalized necessary-intuitions and are called neces- 
sary-truths, first truths, and regulative truths. 

"Without the idea of causality there could be no experience. 
Experience can not begin until the idea of causality awakens in the 
mind. Space and time are primary logical conditions which make 
an objective world possible. Causality is equally fundamental for 
the existence of experience. Without the idea of causality the mind 
can not recognize itself as the producer of its deeds, nor can it recog- 
nize anything objectively existing as the producer of its sense-im- 
pressions. All sensg-impressions are mere feelings and are subject- 
ive. We can not derive the idea of cause from experience, for we 
have to use it to begin experience. The perception of the objective 
is possible only by the act of passing beyond our subjective sensa- 
tions and referring them to external objects as causes of them. 
Whether I refer the cause of my sensations to objects and thereby 
perceive, or whether I trace the impressions to my own organism and 
detect an illusion of my senses in place of a real perception — in both 
cases I use the idea of causality. The object is the cause, or I am 
the sole cause. ... A real cause is an originator of changes or new 
forms of existence. It is not something which demands another 
cause behind it, for it is self-active. The chain of relativity ends in 
a true cause and can not be conceived without it. The true cause is 
an absolute, inasmuch as it is independent. That which receives its 
form from another is dependent and relative. That which is self- 
aetive is a true cause, gives form to itself or others, and is independ- 




REASON, REASONING, AND REASONS. 167 

ent of others. Our idea of cause, therefore, is the basis of our ideas 
of freedom, of moral responsibility, of selfhood, of immortality, and, 
finally, of God." * 

Reason makes necessarj-truths the ground and the 
guide of thought. Things which are equal to the same 
thing are equal to each other. This truth, in some of 
its modifications, doubtless gives form to all our mathe- 
matical reasoning. The mathematical syllogism does 
not, like the real syllogism, subsume. The following 
example illustrates both : 

y < x\ or X includes y ; 

^ ^y\ y includes z ; 

.' . z < X, .' , X includes z. 

2. Judgments are the stuff out of which arguments 
are made. Self as judgment discerns truth-relations 
and thinks his percepts and concepts into judgments. 
These we embody in sentences and call ihQui proposi- 
tions. Self as reason discerns grounds and thinks judg- 
ments into reasons. 

3. Terms and propositions. In every reason three 
terms and three propositions are expressed or implied. 
For example : 

All men are mortal ; /^^i 

Poets are men ; 

. • . Poets are mortal. 

As mortal is the larger term, it is called the major 
term ; as poets includes least, it is called the minor 
term ; as man comes between the major and minor 
terms and is the term with which the others are com- 

« Dr. W. T. Harris. 




168 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

pared, it is called the middle term. As the first propo- 
sition includes most, and is the one on which the others 
are based, it is termed the major premise. In the 
major premise all men are mortal, the middle and major 
terms are compared. As the second proposition in- 
cludes less, and is based on the major premise, it is 
called the minor premise. Poets are onen ; here the 
minor and middle terms are compared. As the third 
proposition is the necessary inference from the pre- 
mises, it is called the conclusion. Poets are mortal ; 
here the major and minor terms are compared. 

4. Reasoning is discerning grounds and reaching 
conclusions through the medium of premises. Since 
a = 5 and c = (Z, we discern the conclusion that <? = Z>. 
We compare the major and minor premises and infer the 
conclusion. We so interlock related propositions as to 
reacli conclusions. We so grasp related judgments as 
to press them to a conclusion. We discern the cause- 
relations between judgments and thus reach new truths 
which we term conclusions. As all men desire happi- 
ness, and as the Ai^ahs are men, we reason that the 
Arabs desire happiness. 

5. Yerifying our conclusions. This means inves- 
tigation. Reason presides, but in this search for truth 
all our powers contribute. We analyze ; we reduce the 
argument to propositions, and the propositions to con- 
cepts, and the concepts to percepts. We synthesize ; 
we convert percepts into concepts, and concepts into 
judgments, and judgments into arguments. We find 
that the major premise is true ; we find that the minor 
premise is true and related to the major premise ; we 
find that the conclusion is true and that it follows from 



REASON, REASONING, AND REASONS. 169 

the premises. Going back to our intuitions, we inves- 
tigate every point connected with the argument. We 
thus verify our conchisions. 

III. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. — ^'^ Indue- 
tion and deduction^ hke analysis and synthesis, of which 
they are special forms, accompany each other in all the 
higher processes of thought. The two blend together 
so intimately that it is often difficult to sever them, or 
to find or trace the line where the one begins and the 
other terminates. They run together so readily and are 
so intimately united that it is often hard to decide 
whether the process is inductive or deductive, because 
it is difficult to decide with which the mind begins, the 
particular or the general, or whether both these rela- 
tions are not considered together." * We find that in this 
case and this two parts of oxygen combined with one 
part of hydrogen give us water ; we infer that this will 
be true in all cases. We demonstrate that a square de- 
scribed on the hypotenuse of this right-angled triangle 
equals the squares described on the other two sides, and 
we infer that this is true of all right-angled triangles. 
This is indtcctive reasoning. Because all men are falli- 
ble, we infer that teachers are fallible. Since all flesh- 
eating animals are carnivorous, we infer that panthers 
are carnivorous. This is deductive reasoning. Induc- 
tion ascends through general truths to particular 
truths; deduction descends through general truths to 
particular truths. When we ascertain the representa- 
tive facts we induce the general ; thus we infer that 
heat expands all minerals. We deduce general truths 
particular truths ; thus we infer that heat expands 

* Porter. 



170 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

diamonds, since it expands all minerals. Though we 
reason through particulars to generals and through 
generals to particulars, the act of reasoning is ever the 
same. Reason is the power of inference. 

The Reason and Necessary-Intuition.— These are the terms used 
to designate the native energy of self to gain intuitively necessary- 
ideas. In logic and literature and practical life, reason stands for 
the power of inference. It must prove an immense gain to use 
reason uniformly in its popular sense. Necessary-intuition is the 
capability of self to gain by direct insight necessary -ideas. This is 
specific ; necessary-intuition expresses all that writers mean by the 
reason. Necessary-intuition is the power of direct insight into the 
constitution of things, and is the regulating principle of mind. 
Bascom tells us that the regulative ideas are existence, number, 
resemblance, space, time, cause, spontaneity, consciousness, truth, 
beauty, right, and mfinity. Self as thought generalizes necessary- 
ideas into necessary -judgments ; these are the axioms of mathemat- 
ics and logic and life, and are called necessary-truths. It seems 
every way fitting to call our power to gain directly necessary-ideas 
necessary -intuition, just as we call our power to gain sense-ideas 
sense-intuition, and our power to gain self-ideas self-intuition. Rea- 
son, then, may be used imiformly as the power of inference. 

Eeason and Faith. — We investigate, we reason, we reach conclu- 
sions. We believe in our conclusions, for we trust them and act on 
them ; this is faith. Rational beings are so constituted that they 
accept as true conclusions based on sufficient reason. Faith intro- 
duces us to the larger life of the race. The historian, through his- 
toric premises, infers historic conclusions which he tnists. Our 
history- world is a thing of faith. The scientist experiences one 
truth and accepts a thousand on faith, and thus builds into science 
the experiences of the race. Blind credulity is not rational, is not 
faith. Self, as reason, investigates, and, when the reasons are suffi- 
cient, comes to a conclusion. Self, as faith, assents to the conclu- 
sion, confides in it, and acts on it. The engineer concludes that the 
bridge is safe ; the conductor accepts this conclusion, trusts it, risks 
his life and that of the passengers on it ; he believes that the bridge 
is safe. This is faith. The Christian reasons that the Bible is com- 
pletely adapted to man, and hence must be the work of the Author 



EDUCATION OF CONCEPTION. 



in 



of our being ; he believes this conclusion, trusts in it, risks his eter- 
nal all on it. This is faith. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 



EDUCATION OF CONCEPTION. 

By this is meant the development of the power to 
think individuals into classes. Uneducated persons 
lack power and grasp of mind because they do not 
discern things in their relations; do not think many 
resembling things as one 
class. The uncultured, like 
children, think in particu- 
lar rather than in general 
terms. Culture of concep- 
tion increases thought- 
power almost infinitely. 
It enables one to think 
billions of individuals as 
a single class. You think 
animal^ and this is equiva- 
lent to millions of living 
creatures. You think crude 
knowledge into science. 

I. Relations of Concep- 
tion AND Definitions 
of Terms. 

The position of con- 
ception in the mental econ- 




172 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

omy may be indicated as in the margin. Its place as 
one of the thought-powers is unquestioned. 

1. Relation to intuition. Conception is dependent 
on intuition for the materials out of which concepts are 
made. Sense-intuition gives us ideas of material things 
having properties. Self-intuition gives us ideas of the 
activities, and acts of self. I^ecessary-intuition gives us 
ideas of necessary-realities. But these ideas are indi- 
vidual concrete notions. Self, as conception, compares 
individuals, discerns class relations, and thinks particu- 
lar notions into general notions. 

2. delations to memory and imagination. Self as 
memory recalls his particular notions and keeps them 
before the mind for comparison and assimilation. 
We certainly can not picture our concepts, and yet 
imagination lielps us amazingly in our classifying 
labors. Often we need to create experiences. You 
have seen but one elephant, but from your knowledge 
of other animals you can imagine elephants, large, 
small, young, old, white, black, and gray. Then you 
think your real and imaginary experiences into the con- 
cept elephant. In some degree, at least for a time, the 
learner dimly pictures concepts with particulars blurred 
or left out of view, as when we think triangle, or soldier, 
or tree. In thinking tree, some familiar tree flits before 
the mind and helps us to think the general notion. 

3. Relations to judgment and reason. In forming 
concepts we judge. In fact, a concept is a plexus of 
judgments. Often, too, the learner needs to stop and 
reason, as when he comes to classifying the sponge. 
On the other hand, conception furnishes general no- 
tions to be appropriated by judgment and reason. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE EDUCATION OF CONCEPTION. 1 73 

Definitions. — Teachers, even more than students, need to define 
their terras sharply, and especially the terms that they constantly 
use. Conception may be termed the capability to make definitions. 

1. Conception is the native energy of self to think particular 
notions into general notions. Self, as conception, thinks the par- 
ticular notions John, James, and Henry into the general notion loy. 

2. Co7iceiving is the act of discerning class-relations and assimi- 
lating individuals into classes. I discover that some of these apples 
are sweet and some are sour, and I assimilate all into two classes, 
and call these sour apples and those sweet apples. 

3. A concept is a general notion: Boston and Chicago and 
Nashville are particular notions, but city is a general notion. Class- 
notions are concepts. Our ideas are either percepts or concepts. 
Our particular notions are percepts, but our general notions are con- 
cepts. Percepts are concrete, concepts are abstract; percepts are 
individual notions, concepts are group notions ; percepts are par- 
ticular notions, concepts are general notions. The notions this dog, 
this horse, and this elephant are percepts ; the notions quadruped, 
vertebrate, and mammal are concepts. 

4. Culture of conception is the development and training of the 
power to acquire and use concepts. Culture makes the difference 
between the weak and crude conceptive powers of the child and the 
savage, and the vigorous conceptive powers of the scientist. 

II. Importance of the Education of Conception. 

Thinking is discerning relations. Conceptive think- 
ing is discerning class-relations. As soon as the child 
begins to observe similar objects it begins to group 
them. This is the feeble beginning of thought. It is 
important to so develop the classifying power as to 
make the student a master. 

1. Culture of conception greatly increases mental 
vigor. Uneducated persons deal with percepts, and 
their thinking is narrow and child-like. Educated per- 
sons deal with concepts, and their thinking is broad and 
vigorous. 



174 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

2. Culture of conception conserves mental energy. 
Percepts not crystallized into concepts are squandered. 
The complete assimilation of discriminations into a 
unity is the culminating principle of education. We 
compare, discriminate, and then assimilate ; we think 
as one class things having one or more common char- 
acteristics ; we think our notions into larger and still 
larger mental units; we crystallize our particular no- 
tions into general notions. Concepts are more precious 
than fine gold. 

3. Culture of conception makes science jpossihle. 
Savages make no science. Persons whose classifying 
power is undeveloped neither make nor understand 
science. Science is classified knowledge. Develop- 
ment of conception prepares one to make science and 
comprehend the products of human thought. 

III. Growth of Conception. 

The cut illustrates the gradual growth of concep- 
tion. The child begins its mental life by gaining sense- 
percepts. Out of these sense-percepts it soon begins to 
form sense-concepts. The degree of activity indicates 
kind of culture required. 

1. Kindergarten period. Before the end of the first year the in- 
fant seems to begin to group things. When two or three years old 
the child makes many amusing classifications. By the end of the 
sixth year the intelligent child has roughly classified the objective 
world around it. Wise mothers lead children to use proper terms 
to express their concepts. The Kindergartner leads her pupils to 
crystallize their sense-percepts into sense-concepts. 

2. Primary period. From six to ten, verbal memory is decidedly 
active and objective conception is moderately active. Now is the 
time for objective language-lessons and classifications of geometri- 



GROWTH OF CONCEPTION. 



175 



cal forms and colors, as well as for the foundation work in geography, 
zoology, and botany. Easy but correct names of concepts are ac- 
quired. 

3. Intermediate period. Boys and girls 
take delight in objective analysis and syn- 
thesis and in discovering group notions. 
Their classifications are bold and striking; 
obscure and minute groupings are made later. 
Pupils are led to work up to concepts and 
make their own definitions. The work of 
this period is of the utmost importance. 

4. High- school period. During this peri- 
od conception reaches a still higher activity. 
This is the science period, and youths de- 
light in discovering over again the classifica- 
tions of science. 

5. College period and afterward. Con- 
ception is moderately active in childhood, 
and is highly active from the tenth to the 
eighteenth year. This is pre-eminently the 
period for its vigorous use and systematic 
culture. After the eighteenth year classifi- 
cation becomes philosophic and exhaustive. 
Conception seems to increase in power 
throughout active life. In manhood our 
classifications become more accurate and far- 
reaching. By constantly pushing our re- 
searches into new realms we may keep the 
classifying power vigorous even in old age. 

lY. Laws of Conception-Geowth. 

Education is that development 
and training which fits a man for 
the highest usefulness and highest 
happiness of which he is capable. 

I. General Educational Laws. — 
It is necessary to restate these laws in terms of concep- 
tion ; thus stated they guide the teacher : 



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176 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in conceiv- 
ing and using general notions educates conception. 
This law requires the learner to do his own classifying. 
Relations must be discerned. Individuals must be 
thought into groups, and concepts must be incorporated 
into the mental life. 

2. Law of tneans. Studies which call conception 
into the most vigorous and most constant activity are 
of greatest value for conception-culture. Zoology and 
botany rank highest. 

3. Law of method. Plans of work which lead the 
pupils to put forth, in the best ways, their best efforts in 
acquiring and using concepts educate conception. It is 
understood that this work must be systematic and per- 
sistent. 

II. Special Laws of Conception-Growth. — The tend- 
ency to classify is exceedingly human. Children and 
men feel the impulse to master things by grouping 
them. The uniform ways in which all must work in 
order to strengthen the grouping faculty are termed 
the laws of conception-growth. Attention is directed 
to two or three special laws : 1. Ascending through 
percepts to concepts educates conception. This law re- 
quires that the learner should make the ascent. 2. Or- 
ganizing particular notions into general notions edu- 
cates conception. Object-lessons which stop with per- 
cepts are waste labor in education. In order to save 
its particular notions the child must be led to assimi- 
late them into general notions. Observe critically the 
classifying efforts of your pupils. How must they 
make these efforts in order to growth ? You will 
discover other special laws of great practical value. 



MEANS OF EDUCATING CONCEPTION. 



177 



Above all, you will teach your pupils to work in ac- 
cordance with law. 



Y. Means of educating Conception. 

Food is necessary to growth. The plant feeds on 
inorganic substances, but the animal on organic. Knowl- 
edge is our intellectual food. Self as perception or- 
ganizes sensations and awareness into j^ercepts. Self as 
conception feeds on organic knowledge, assimilates per- 
cepts into concepts. Studies are best for conception- 
culture that give the widest exercise in gaining general 
notions. The classified sciences — botany, zoology, min- 
eralogy, and chemistry — stand pre-eminent. Objective 
arithmetic, including the construction of tables of weights 
and measures, language-lessons in connection with ob- 
jects, constructing outlines and w^orking out definitions, 
must rank very high. Studies of a low value in edu- 
cating conception, such as advanced arithmetic and 
algebra, are omitted from the table. 

Table of Educational Values. — Studies which call the classifying 
power into most vigorous and most constant activity are of the 
highest value as a means of cultivating conception. You will make 
your own estimates and insert in column 3. You can then find the 
averages. 



CONCEPTION-CULTURE, VALUE OF 



Zoology, botany 

Objective language-lessons and objective arith- 
metic 

Mineralogy, chemistry, geography 

Grammar, history, literature 

Geometry, physiology, physics 



10 



The educator relies largely on language-lessons, zoology, and 
botany as the means for educating the conceptive power. These 
12 



178 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

studies extend from the Kindergarten to the university. The ani- 
mals and the plants in city and country are all around us. No other 
studies interest children and youths more than the classilQcation of 
plants and animals. Geography may easily be defined so as to in- 
clude zoology and botany, and these studies may be made a part of 
the work in geography. In our elementary schools, one quarter 
each year may be devoted to zoology and one quarter to botany, 
leaving half the school year for the usual geography work. 

YI. Methods of developing Conception. 

" Education can be in nothing more ostentatious than 
in its so-called methods, and it is here that charlatanism 
can most readily intrude itself. Every little change, 
every pitiful modification, is proclaimed aloud as a new 
or an improved method." We must keep in mind that 
an educational method is a lawful, systematic, persist- 
ent, and efficient plan of work, adapted to an educa- 
tional period. Devices are helpful expedients, and 
should be so designated. 

I. Primary Methods. — Up to six the child's chief 
work is to form the acquaintance of sense objects and 
roughly group these objects. From six to ten the child 
steadily advances in objective classifications. The great 
activity of sense-perception and verbal memory, and the 
moderate activity of conception emphasize the impor- 
tance of leading the child to gain a considerable store 
of objective concepts. 

1. Lead the child to detect resemblances and group 
common objects. Take chairs, knives, doors, windows, 
fruits, parts of the body^ colors, and so on. It is essen- 
tial that the learner sliall do the work. 

2. Lead the pupil to group geometrical forms and 
construct tables of weights and measures. Here we 



METHODS OF DEVELOPING CONCEPTION. 179 

have easy and interesting work. At every step so 
manage that the child will feel the joy of discovery. 

3. Lead the child to classify animals and plants. 
The pupil must be led to observe animals and plants, 
and discern common points and make bold classifica- 
tions. This work is a perennial delight to the little 
ones. 

4. By easy steps lead the learner through percepts 
to concepts. In childhood self as conception acts feebly. 
Kesemblances must be obvious, the classifications must 
be bold and picturesque, and names of concepts must 
be easy. 

" The training of conception should begin in connection with 
sense observation. Objects should be laid in juxtaposition and the 
child invited to discover their similarities of form, color, etc. And 
here his active impulses may be appealed to, by giving him a eon- 
fused multitude of objects and inviting him to sort them into classes. 
By this direct inspection of a number of things, notions of simple 
classes of natural objects, as species of animals and flowers, as well 
as of geometric forms and numbers, may be gained. A sufficient 
variety of instances must be supplied in every case, but the number 
required will differ according to the character of the notion to be 
formed. This operation of comparing and classing should be sup- 
plemented by naming the objects thus grouped, and by forming 
easy definitions of the more important concepts gained." * 

II. Intermediate Methods. — Primary and high school 
methods in our best schools are now excellent, but in- 
termediate methods are often remarkably defective. 
This stage of development does not seem to be grasped 
by the great body of our teachers. The precious years 
of girlhood and boyhood are largely squandered. This 
is the semi-scientific period. During this period the 

* Sully. 



180 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

foundation for science work and language work should 
be deeply laid in experience. 

1. Lead the learner to ')nake hold hut accurate 
classifications. Boys and girls take delight in objective 
analysis and synthesis, and in thus gaining objective 
concepts. They like to find out classifications for them- 
selves. These efforts, wisely directed, educate concep- 
tion. 

2. Lead the picpils to find out the classifications of 
science. Botany, zoology, and geography furnish am- 
ple scope for these achievements. As pupils gain per- 
cepts first-hand, so must they gain concepts. They 
observe that plants and animals are related by resem- 
blances. Through these common characteristics they 
think animals and plants into classes. In our common 
schools, it has been found highly satisfactory to devote 
half the school year to the ordinary geographical work, 
and one fourth to zoology and one fourth to botany. 
The gain is immense. This course has so much to com- 
mend it that it is likely to be followed in all our ele- 
mentary schools. 

3. Lead the hoys and girls to make outlines and 
definitions. At this stage of development, as well as 
earlier, the pupil needs all possible objective helps, such 
as the molding board, globes, maps, charts, pictorial 
representations, and outhnes, in addition to the objects 
themselves. Lead the learner to discover relations 
between concepts and make the outlines, as of parts of 
speech, classes of vertebrates, etc. Concepts must now 
be defined. Children define percepts by describing ob- 
jects, but boys and girls define objective concepts by 
referring the notion defined to a higher class and 



METHODS OF DEVELOPING CONCEPTION. 181 

giving the characteristic difference. The pupil gains 
the concept quadruped through his percepts of indi- 
vidual quadrupeds and makes his own definition. It is 
easy for him to make his own definition when he gains 
concepts for himself. Definitions must be clear-cut. 

4. Lead hoys and girls to make tables of weights 
and measures. In our transition times, we must have 
both the common and the metric weights and measures. 
The pupils weigh and measure, and thus gain the per- 
cepts which they think into concepts. Beform is 
needed, and we should hasten the domination of the 
metric system. 

III. High-School Methods. — Here but little needs to 
be said. This is pre-eminently the period to master 
classified knowledge. Conception is now fully active, 
and memory is at its best. Science-making develops 
conception. 

1. Lead the student to rediscover the classifications 
of science. He now has access to two sources of infor- 
mation—his own experiences and the vicarious expe- 
riences of others. He finds the treasured experience of 
the race in books. He is now^ prepared to appreciate 
this experience and make it his own. Still, at every 
step, he must go back to I^ature and rediscover and 
verify for himself. Teachers and books give him 
information, but his percepts and concepts must be 
his own. 

2. Logical diagramming educates conception. The 
student first masters details. He studies objects in their 
relations and sums up his acquisitions in logical and ex- 
haustive diagrams. Diagramming enables the student 
to discern more clearly class limits as well as class rela- 



182 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACmNG. 

tions. But mere aggregations are not logical diagrams. 
Loose diagramming hinders rather than helps. Dia- 
gramming by the teacher does little good. Only inde- 
pendent diagramming really helps. Few teachers can 
resist wholly the temj)tation to do this work for their 
pupils. 

3. Gimng logical definitions educates conception. 
Thus the student learns to use concepts with exactness. 
Words representing concepts become full of meaning. 
The student thinks clearly when his concepts are clear- 
cut. In all cases each one must maJce his own defini- 
tions. Committing definitions or classifications, not 
grounded in experience, does not develop conception. 
'' A concept is a definition and not a mental image." 

Clearness of Concepts. — " When we consider that children learn 
many words before they have a knowledge of the things for which 
they stand, that adults often learn the use of words in a mechanical 
way without concerning themselves about the exact notions which 
the words should represent, that words are applied loosely, some- 
times in oneway and sometimes in another, that our knowledge of a 
thing is frequently incomplete and inaccurate, that one man looks 
at a subject from one standpoint and another from a different point 
of view, we can not wonder at the confusion and misunderstanding 
that often arise in the communication of thought. Inaccurate con- 
cepts, imperfect definition of words, and difference in use of words 
are the occasion of confusion in the use of language." * 

4. Conceiving and using clear-cut self-concepts edu- 
cates conception. Young people need to explore the 
mind world as well as the matter world. Here well- 
defined concepts are even more important than in mat- 
ter studies. The student must make his self-concepts 
out of his own. self percepts. The notions I have of this 

* James H. Baker. 



METHODS OF DEVELOPING CONCEPTION. 183 

gratitude, and tins, and this, are self -percepts ; but my 
notion of gratitude and of my capability to feel grati- 
tude are self -concepts. Psychology is now as easy to 
the student as zoology or botany, and even more fasci- 
nating. It must be studied in the same way, only the 
student looks within and observes and classifies his own 
mental acts and capabilities. 

5. Stating clearly and rising logically necessary con- 
cepts educates conception. Necessary concepts must be 
thought out of intuitions of necessary realities. I gain 
intuitions of beauty when I feel the emotions of beauty 
in the presence of beautiful things. Out of my beauty 
intuitions I make the general notion heauty. Out of 
my duty percepts I make the concept ditty. I think 
my intuitions of particular spaces into the general no- 
tion space. 

Rules for Educating Conception. — To make these directions for 
conception-culture striking they are presented in this form : 

1. Study to co7nprehencl. You apprehend this object when you 
know it is a sense-object. You comprehend it when you know it in 
its relations. You perceive this pear — you apprehend it ; but when 
you think of it as fruit you comprehend it. Perceiving is appre- 
hending ; conceiving is comprehending. 

2. Think your percepts into concepts. The mind ascends through 
percepts to concepts. To stop short of this is a great mental waste. 
Treasuring our experiences in clear-cut concepts is true mental 
economy. 

3. 3Iahe your own definitions. Unless your definitions grow 
out of your own experience and thought, immediate and appropri- 
ated, they will prove of little worth to you. No feature of the new 
education is more striking than this — pupils are led to make their 
own definitions out of their own experiences. This is Socratic as 
well as Pestalozzian. 

4. Classify for yourself. Through your own experience you may 
appropriate the experience of the raoe ; but you are compelled to do 



184 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

your own thinking. No one can discern relations for you. In the 
light of your own and the appropriated experience of others, you 
must make over again the classifications of science. 

5. Create experiences. You will need to constantly supplement 
your experiences by imaginary experiences. This is a necessity in 
geography, and to some extent in all studies. You so combine your 
experiences as to virtually create new experiences. 

YII. Ereoks in Conception-Cultuee. 

Many educational fallacies and blunders occur in our 
efforts to educate conception. Some leading mistakes 
are pointed out. The thoughtful teacher only needs to 
be cautioned. 

1. Concepts hefore percepts. This group of errors 
is most common and most baneful. The law of ascent 
is palpably violated. Before the child gains the per- 
cepts this lake, and this, and this, it is required to com- 
mit a definition of the concept lake. Before he gains 
the concrete notions of numbers he is made to commit 
the multiplication-table and the tables of weights and 
measures. This hurtful error pervades the old educa- 
tion. This blunder may be said to characterize the 
work of teachers ignorant of child-nature and ignorant 
of the laws of mental growth. 

2. Stopping with percepts. Particular notions are 
of little value except as they lead up to general notions. 
Percepts are scaffolding ; concepts are completed struct- 
ure. Object-lessons which stop with percepts are edu- 
cational mistakes. If all our teachers could understand 
the mental necessity of perceiving particulars in order 
to discern generals, and of assimilating particular no- 
tions into general notions, it would revolutionize our 
methods of teaching. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 185 

3. Exclusive look wm^k. In geograpliy the book is 
studied, but not the earth and its products and its in- 
habitants. In botany the book classifications are com- 
mitted, but the student remains a stranger amid the 
plant world. In all studies definitions and rules are 
committed, but these are meaningless words because 
they are not rooted in experience. 

4. Making for the learner definitions^ classifica- 
tions^ and diagrams. Eat the pupil's dinner for him 
if you will, but I beg of you to let him do his own 
thinking. Lead him to work up to concepts and defi- 
nitions and rules and diagrams. 

5. Neglect of conception-culture. Thinking is con- 
ceiving, judging, reasoning. Classification, chrono- 
logically and logically, is the first step in thinking. 

Few really take this step, few really think. One person in a 
thousand thinks up to the truth. Is it strange? Do our schools 
train pupils to think? Do our churches ? Do political parties ? It 
need not surprise you to find the unthinking masses drifting along 
in grooves made by their predecessors. A revolution is demanded. 
The school-room is the place to begin. The great want of the world 
is thinking teachers capable of educating a race of thinkers, 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Helpful Books.— Psychologies which will assist you in gaining 
deeper insight into the nature of conception and its processes and 
products come first. These, such as Porter's Intellect, Schuyler's 
Psychology, and Sully's Outlines of Psychology, are now numerous. 
Helpful works treating of the culture of conception are not abun- 
dant, but attention is called to Bain's Education as a Science, James 
Johonnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching, E. V. De GrafE's 
Development Lessons, and Brooks's Mental Science and Mental Cult- 
ure. You will find good manuals of methods in science, in lan- 
guage-lessons, and in objective arithmetic especially helpful. 



186 APPLIED PSYCnOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Letter on Conception-Culture. — You have doubtless given some 
attention to this subject for years ; you have observed much and read 
much. The best thing you can do now is to put your knowledge into 
good shape, and embody what you know about the culture of con- 
ception in a letter to some fellow-teacher or to some young friend 
who seeks to become a teacher. You may also with great profit 
change this letter into a paper for publication. 

I. Relations of Conception and Definitions of Terms. — Point out 
in cut (page 2) the position of conception in the mental economy. 
Show the relations of conception to sense-perception ; to self-per- 
ception; to necessary-perception. Illustrate. Show and illustrate 
the relations of conception to memory ; to imagination ; to reason ; 
to judgment. Give your own definitions of conception ; of conceiv- 
ing; of a concept; of education of conception. Give and illus- 
trate the distinctions you make between perception and conception; 
between a percept and a concept ; between a concept and an image. 

II. Importance of Conception-Culture.— What is thinking % What 
relations does self as conception discern ? Do you consider concep- 
<*on-culture as important as perception-cwltuYe ? Show that concep- 
tion-culture increases mental vigor, conserves mental energy, makes 
science possible. Present an original reason for the culture of con- 
ception. 

III. Growth of Conception. — Point out in cut (page 175) its stages 
of growth. Which is earliest active, perception or conception *? Do 
you use growth in the sense of development ? Describe the activity 
of conception during the kindergarten period ; during the primary 
period ; during the intermediate period ; during the high-sc?iool 
period ; during the college period. How may this faculty be kept 
vigorous even in old age ? 

IV. Law3 of Conception-Growth.— What do you mean by educa- 
tional laws? State in terms of conception the law of effort; the 
law of means; the law of methods; the law of ascent. Mention 
and explain a special law of conception-growth that you have dis- 
covered. 

V. Means of Educating Conception.— Place on the board Table of 
Conception- Culture Values. State your reasons for the estimates in 
which you differ from the author. Does the culture-value of a study 
depend largely upon the methods of study and teaching? What 
studies do all educators agree in giving a high conception-culture 
value ? Why ? To what studies do all assign a low value t 



EDUCATION OF JUDGMENT. Jg'T 

VI. Methods of Educating Conception.— What do you mean by 
educational methods ? Why do you refuse to call devices and eX' 
pedients and trivial changes methods'? What do you mean by 
primary methods of educating conception ? By intermediate meth- 
ods? By /it^7i-sc/iooZ methods ? By co//e^e methods? State three 
directions to primary teachers. State and illustrate the four di- 
rections to intermediate teachers. State and explain the five direc- 
tions to high-school teachers. Write on the board and explain the 
five rules for educating conception. 

VII. Mistakes in Conception-Culture.— Do you count as educa- 
tional mistakes all violations and misapplications of educational 
laws? What law is violated when the teacher attempts to teach 
concepts before percepts? Give examples. Why is it a serious 
blunder to stop with percepts ? Show that exclusive oral work is a 
mistake. Should the teacher, the book, or the pupil make the defi- 
nitions? How do you account for the neglect of conception- 
culture ? What is the great want of the educational world f 



CHAPTER Xiy. 

EDUCATION OF JUDGMENT. 

This is tlie development of the power to discern 
truth. Eelations between things are as real as the things 
themselves. The agreement and disagreement of our 
notions of things are reahties. Self as judgment discerns 
and asserts these agreements or disagreements. When 
our judgments correspond with reality they are true ; 
as when we discern and assert that the earth is round. 
Our judgments are false when they do not accord with 
reality ; as when we say the earth is square. Truths 
are more precious than the treasures of kings. The 
love of truth characterizes the grand man. A sound 
judgment is the ability to see things in their proper 
relations. 



188 



APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



I. Relations of Judgment and Definition of Terms. 

The Mind is a Unit. — Its activities can not be separated by 
fixed lines. While the soul's various capabilities may be studied 

separately they can not be 
thought of as acting separately. 
The fact of the interaction of our 
various powers is fundament- 
al in educational as in mental 
science. Judgment must he 
thought of as simply the self -Judg- 
ing. Judgment is re-enforced 
by all our other capabilities, but 
an act of discerning truth is es- 
sentially an act of judgment. 

I. Relations. — The po- 
sition of judgment in the 
mental economy is indi- 
cated by the cut in the 
margin. Like conception, 
its place as one of our 
thought-powers is unques- 
tioned. 

1. Eelations to per- 
ception arid conception. 
Self as perception gains 
intuitively particular no- 
tions, and as conception thinks these into general no- 
tions. Self as jtodgment thinks his percepts and con- 
cepts into truths. Particular and general notions are 
the stuff out of which judgments are made. Then, in 
the formation of our notions, judgment plays an im- 
portant part. To think is to judge. 

2. Relations to inemory. Memory holds up before 




RELATIONS OF JUDGMENT AND DEFINITION OF TERMS. 189 

the mind related notions that self as judgment may dis- 
cern agreements and disagreements, and thus discover 
truth. Memory stores truths as our most precious 
treasures. Truths, like ideas, are assimilated, asso- 
ciated, and recalled. 

3. Belations to reason. Eeason takes ready-made 
judgments for premises and discerns their ground re- 
lations. Conclusions are simply inferred judgments. 
Eeason contributes largely to the work of judgment- 
making. 

4. Relations to the emotions. Truths discerned oc- 
casion truth-emotions. Many of the deepest joys of 
life come from finding out new truths. In turn, the 
love of truth inspires research. 

II. Definitions. — Every one makes judgments moment by mo- 
ment. So familiar are we with the sentence-making faculty that 
definitions are scarcely needed. Man may be called the sentence- 
making animal. According to popular usage, judgment characterizes 
good sense ; as used here good sense characterizes judgment. No 
distinction is made between the faculty of judgment and logical 
judgment. "We think of judgment as our truth- discerning power. 
The total intellect is used practically in discerning things in their 
proper relations, but the act is essentially an act of judgment. 

1. Judgment is the capability of self to discern and assert truth- 
relations. I discern the agreement between the notions ivhite and 
snow, and I make the assertion snow is white. As judgment self 
adapts means to ends and discriminates applications, but Aristotle 
taught that we "judge respecting things, affirming or denying one 
thing of another." This gives us propositions as logical judgments. 

2. Judging is the act of discerning and asserting truth-relations. 
We judge when we discern the agreement as disagreement of notions. 

3. A judgment is a product of judging. When expressed, we 
call a judgment a proposition, as, " She, in my judgment, was as 
fair as you." 

4. Education of judgment is the development of our power to 
discern and assert truth. Culture of judgment makes the difference 



190 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

between the weak, hesitating judgment of the child and the strong, 
penetrating, decisive judgment of the educated man. Judgment is 
our power to judge. The expression of an act of judgment is a 
proposition. Judgment implies the presence in the mind of two 
ideas and a knowledge of the relation between them. So there are 
three elements in the proposition — the subject, the predicate, and 
the relation discerned between these. 

II. Importance of Educating Judgment. 

For nothing sliould one be more thankful than for 
a sound judgment. This is the capabihty to see things 
in their proper relations. As judgment self discerns 
relations and finds out truth. It is sometliing much 
higher than the mere proposition making power of the 
logician. " Sound judgment is the total intellect used 
practically." Happy is the man who is capable of dis- 
cerning and loving truth. A good judgment is more 
to be desired than kingdoms. 

1. Judgment is our truth-discer7iing power. Truth 
is more valuable than diamonds. It is the food upon 
which all great souls feed. The culture of judgment 
increases our capability to elaborate our ideas in truths. 

2. Judgments enter into our various experiences. 
You acquire percepts — self as judgment is there. You 
gain concepts — self as judgment is there. You reason 
— self as judgment is there. You feel emotions of 
truth and beauty and duty — self as judgment is there. 
You choose and act — behold, self as judgment is there. 
Its culture increases our power to reach truth. 

3. Judgments are the stuff out of which reasons are 
made. Reasons are interlocked judgments. Through 
judgments we reach new truths. Right judgments make 
correct reasoning possible. Culture of judgment de- 



GROWTH OF JUDGMENT. 



191 



velops good sense, and we begin to see things in tlieir 
proper relations. 

4. Good judgment is the charaO' 
teristic of the good teacher. The lack 
of good sense is the most deplorable 
of all intellectual defects. We say of 
persons, thej have much learning but 
poor judgment. They seem to lack 
common sense. The teacher is called 
upon to decide promptly what is best, 
wdiat is right, what ought to be. 
This is essential in the selection of 
the proper objects of thought for 
teaching ; in their arrangement in the 
natural and logical order; in. direct- 
ing the observation, thought, and ex- 
pression of his pupils ; in the use of 
motives, in managing the school, in 
all his dealings with his pupils. If 
he judges wisely concerning all these 
matters, everything goes on well ; 
if unwisely, trouble comes. 

III. Growth of Judgment. 

Though feeble in childhood, judg- 
ment ought to grow more and more 
vigorous as the years go by. The 
teacher has special facilities for the 
study of child-judgment. Each lan- 
guage-lesson is a psychological study. 

1. Judgment in childhood. In its first years the child begins to 
discern truth-relations but does not assert the agreement of notions. 



192 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

At first the child says " hot," " bad," " sweet," merely using predi- 
cates. Later it uses both subject and predicate, and says : " Cake 
hot." " Boy bad," " Sugar sweet." Evidently the little ones judge. 
About the third year the child begins to predicate the agreement of 
notions, but its judgment is weak and unreliable. The rapid de- 
velopment of objective judgment is now remarkable. 

2. Judgment iri girlhood and boyhood. The power to discern 
and assert objective truth-relations now becomes quite active. It 
curbs the tendency to exaggerate. The boy has his own opinions, 
and is very positive about them. The board is black ; the tree is 
tall ; the apple is sour. 

3. Judgment in youth. The capability to see things in their 
proper relations is now fully active. This is eminently the period 
for the systematic culture of the truth-discerning power. 

4. Judgment in manhood. This faculty certainly becomes moro 
yigorous year by year to the meridian of life. When men work right 
on, like Humboldt and Goethe, their judgments keep vigorous even 
in old age. 

lY. Laws of Judgment- Geo wth. 

Bacon tells iis that ''reading makes the fnll man, 
writing the correct man, speaking the ready man," and 
might have added, thinking the great man. Tliinking 
according to law develops the weak and thoughtless 
child into a Hegel or a Webster. 

1. General laws. These may be stated in terms of 
judgment as follows : (1.) Well-directed effort in dis- 
cerning and expressing truth-relations educates judg- 
ment. (2.) Such subjects as call judgment into constant 
and vigorous activity are best for its culture. (3.) Sys- 
tematic and persistent efforts in making and using judg- 
ments develops this power. 

2. Special laws. (1.) We must ascend through per- 
cepts and concepts to judgments, just as we ascend 
through percepts to concepts. (2.) Sentence-making 
develops judgment. A sentence is an expressed judg- 



MEANS OF EDUCATING JUDGMENT. 



193 



ment. All sentence-making consists in discerning and 
expressing truth-relations, and lience promotes tho 
growth of this faculty. (3.) Perceiving judgments as 
true cultivates the truth-discerning power. Belief is 
assent to the truth of a judgment. The habit of mak- 
ing our own judgments and accepting them as true 
strengthens the capability to discern truth -relations. 

y. Means of educating Judgment. 

All exercises calling into activity the truth-discern- 
ing power may be regarded as means for cultivating 
this faculty. 'No other mental power takes so wide a 
range. Porter says, " We can not think without judg- 
ing, and that to think is to judge." At three, Aristotle 
judged as a child, at sixty as a philosopher. In child- 
hood our judgments are simple, and limited to the ma- 
terial world ; in manhood our judgments are compre- 
hensive, and relate to all worlds. 

Table of Educational Values. — Undoubtedly each study educates 
in some degree all our powers. Still, some studies are better than 
others for the culture of certain faculties because they call these 
faculties into freer, fuller, and more constant activity. In making 
the following estimates this fact is kept in mind. The estimates in 
column one are those of the author : in column two, those of Dr. 
Edward Brooks ; in column three, those of Dr. W. T. Harris. 



JUDGMENT-CULTURE VALUE OF 

Arithmetic 

Geometry, algebra 

Language-lessons, composition 

Psychology, logic, ethics, philosophy.. 

History and literature 

Botany, zoOlogy, chemistry, geography 

Latin, grammar, and rhetoric 

Reading or drawing or music 

13 



1 


2 


3 


4 


6 


9 


3 




6 


9 


4 




9 


7 


8 




10 


8 


10 




9 


6 


10 




8 


5 


7 




9 


7 


9 




6 


5 


5 





194 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

(1.) The study of mathematics gives early and constant activity 
to the judgment. Mathematics is a science of related ideas ; nearly 
every process involves an act of " judgment." From the simplest 
thought (1 + 1 = 2) to the profoundest theorem of calculus, the 
judgment is in constant activity. Every analysis in arithmetic, 
every solution in algebra, every demonstration in geometry, consists 
of a series of related judgments, and the student of these sciences 
is compelled to use constantly the faculties of relative thought* 
(2.) Mathematics deals with a low order of certainty, viz., quantita- 
tive equality, but it does not deal with the logical judgment at all. 
For the logical judgment subsumes a particular under a general. 
But mathematics does not subsume, but finds dead, precise equality. 
The judgments of quantity are the easiest of all, and do not require 
much effort ; they do not cultivate judgment. 2 = 2; a = a ; 
8 < 4 ; express dead equality and inequality. Compare such judg- 
ments with '* Ca?sar was wise in crossing the Rubicon," or "This 
picture is beautiful," or " This act is good." f (3.) Language-lessons, 
including composition, analysis, and construction of sentences and 
logical definitions, rank very high as means of judgment-culture. 
(4.) Psychology, logic, and ethics also deserve a very high place. 
Character-building calls judgment into constant use. 

YI. Methods of educating Judgment. 

Under self-teacliiiig and IS^ature's teaching man re- 
mains a savage. One does not learn to think by mere 
thinking. Thmking under guidance develoj^s the 
^wer to think efficiently. Teaching is the art of 
training" the learner to think. Educational methods in- 
elude the work of the learner as well as that of the 
teacher. The teaclier leads the learner to put forth his 
lest efforts in the lest ways. Methods in educating 
judgment are plans of work that call this power into 
systematic, vigorous, and persistent activity. 

I. Kindergarten and Primary Methods. — The child 
judges, discerns truth-relations, but his judgments are 
* Dr. Edward Brooks. t Dr. W. T. Harris. 



METHODS OF EDUCATING JUDGMENT. 195 

of tilings objective and obtrusive. At an early age the 
cliild begins to use easy concrete sentences. At first 
both the subject and tlie verb are omitted; later the 
verb only is omitted, as " Horse black," " Sister naughty." 
Later the child uses verbs, but continues for some time 
to use percepts as the subjects of his judgments, as 
"Eover barks," "This bird sings." Later the child 
begins to use concepts as subjects, as "Dogs bark," 
" Birds sing." The teaching must be adapted to these 
stages of growth. 

1. Lead tlie child to form his own judgments. 
There is no need to hurry. Lead the child to discern and 
express obvious truths ; as, the rose is red, the table has 
four legs, the apple is sweet. Even at this stage the 
learner must be led to think for himself. However 
feeble the thinking, and however easy and simple the 
concepts and judgments formed, well-directed effort 
educates. 

2. Lead the child to lyrize truth and form the 
truth-habit. Judgment must express actual relations. 
Is the apple really sour ? Did I in reality recite well ? 
Is the horse in reality a quadruped ? The truth-habit is 
invaluable. The wise»mother lays the foundation early 
and fixes the habit. The kindergarten and primary 
teacher greatly strengthen the habit of truthfulness, 
and in this way promote the growth of judgment and 
at the same time develop character. 

3. Be certain that the child judges. Babbling is 
not thinking. The child may say 3 + 3 = 6 or the lake 
is round without an idea. Lead the pupil through 
percepts to grasp the concepts 3 and 6, and to really 
discern the truth that three and three equal six. Lead 



196 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tlie child, by means of concrete examples, to form for 
itself the concepts lake and round. It can then say 
intelligently the lake is round. These easy sentences 
will be its own judgments. 

II. Intermediate Methods. — From ten to fourteen, 
the judgment is decidedly active. Girls and boys 
delight in forming and using judgments. Under direc- 
tion they work up to mastery. 

1. Lead the learner to construct and analyze sen- 
tences. I count composition and analysis of tlie English 
sentence of great educational value, disciplinary and 
practical. Each step is based on the learner's experience. 
Truth-relations are discerned and expressed. These 
sentences are expressed judgments. This is the period 
to master the English sentence. The old-time manner 
of parsing hinders, and does not help ; indeed, in our 
time, it is avoided during this period by the wise 
teacher. 

2. Lead the learner to study things in their relations. 
Each step is a judgment, and, when the work is properly 
adjusted, the pupil may be led to take the successive steps 
for himself. To make progress, the pupil must judge. 

3. Lead the learner to classify and define. A con- 
cept is a condensed judgment, and may be expanded into 
a sentence. A logical definition is a judgment asserting 
the truth-relation between an individual and a species 
or between a species and a genus. Here we find geog- 
raphy, botany, and zoology of the highest value. 

III. High-School Methods. — From fourteen to eight- 
een the judgment is wonderfully active, and becomes 
more and more penetrating and reliable. This is the 
fitting period for its highest culture. 



ERRORS IN EDUCATING JUDGMENT. 197 

1. Lead the learner to judge for himself. Stimu- 
late to the utmost independent effort. At any cost 
manage to have the learner master problems for him- 
self. In mathematics see that the student does the 
work without help. Easy problems mastered by the 
learner are better than difficult problems which master 
the pupil. In all studies stimulate students to do inde- 
pendent thinking. 

2. Sthmdate vigorous judging. Only sturdy effort 
develops power. Childish thinking gives us effeminate 
youths who enjoy a sensational novel, but are incapable 
of reading with pleasure and profit Shakespeare, or 
Bacon, or Kant. It may be well to dilute lessons for 
young pupils, but a youth needs to do hard work. 
Vigorous endeavor gives the penetrating judgment and 
develops power. Thinking makes the great man. 

3. Develop a thirst for truth. Truth is more valu- 
able than diamonds. Happy the student who hungers 
and thirsts for truth. He longs to become acquainted 
with things in their proj)er relations. He seeks to 
strictly conform his judgments to realities. He hates 
untruths as he hates sin. Love of truth has developed 
the world's greatest heroes. 

YII. Errors in educating Judgment. 

The old sage instructed the teachers to develop 
judgment rather than cram memory with crude facts. 
This rule is often reversed. 

1. Memory is crowded and judgment neglected. 
The knowledge of persons thus treated is a crude 
jumble, a heterogeneous mass, a source of weakness 
rather than sti'ength. 



198 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

2. Children are cJ/ragged tliroiigh difficult abstract 
worh. The result is confusion, discouragement, and 
weakness. Whenever the pupil is dragged through 
arithmetic or algebra or physiology, he is dwarfed, not 
educated. Only when truth-relations are discerned 
with sunlight clearness does study develop judgment. 

3. Youths are fed with spoons. Too many high- 
school teachers treat youths as though they were chil- 
dren. Now is the time for robust work. " Milk for 
babes but meat for men." 

4. The laws of descent and ascent are violated. 
With many teachers judgments in the form of defini- 
tions and rules come before percepts and concepts. 
This is one of the many ways in which these laws are 
violated and pupils stultified, 

5. Hasty judgments are assented to as true. We 
are inclined to accept the opinions of others as true 
without examination. Then we are so liable to judge as 
we desire without reference to reality. Prejudices often 
60 blind us that Ave do not discern the truth. We should 
cultivate honesty and thoroughness in judging. We 
must really discern truth-relations before we assert 
them. AYe must discriminate sharply between opin- 
ions and truths 

6. Pupils take the statements of teachers and hoohs 
loithout thinking. This is a prolific source of error and 
of feebleness of judgment. In some way the learner 
must be led to judge at every step. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 
Helpful Books. — Compayre, in his lectures on pedagogy, treats 
briefly, but clearly, of judgment and its culture, as does Brooks in 
his Mental Culture. Locke's Conduct of the Understanding is ex- 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 199 

cellent. Most writers treat of thought culture rather than of the 
culture of the thought powers. 

Letter on the Culture of Judgment. — Lead your friend to realize 
the value of a cultured judgment. Have you well-defined views 
about the education of the truth-discerning power! Present them 
in your letter clearly and pointedly. 

1. Position and Definitions. — Show by the cut, page 2, the posi- 
tion of judgment in the mental economy. State and illustrate the 
i-elations of judgment to perception ; to conception ; to memory; to 
reason. Define judgment; judging; a judgment; education of 
judgment. Illustrate the distinction you make between perception 
and conception ; between memory and imagination ; between con- 
ception and judgment. 

XL Importance of educating Judgment. — Which do you consider 
the more important, the culture of memory or the culture of judg- 
ment f You may give three original reasons in favor of cultivating 
judgment. 

III. Growth of Judgment. — How early does the child discern 
truth-relations? Dlustrate the steps by which it reaches sentences. 
How early does the child intelligently use sentences? What is the 
golden period for judgment culture ? How may this faculty be kept 
vigorous in old age? Point out the growth of judgment in several 
periods, as indicated by the cut. 

IV. Laws of Judgment-Growth.— State in terms of judgment the 
law of effort ; the law of means; the law of method ; the law of as- 
cent. Illustrate each. 

V. Means of educating Judgment. — Place on the board and ex- 
plain the table of educational values. Give your reasons for your 
estimates. Do you rank arithmetic highest? Why do you place 
language-lessons so high ? Do you consider botany as good a means 
as mathematics for judgment culture ? 

VI. Methods of educating Judgment. — Prove that more depends 
on plans of work than on subjects. Illustrate by your method 
of teaching history. Give three directions for primary teachers; 
three for intermediate teachers ; three for high-school teachers. Give 
your method of educating judgment. 

VII. Mistakes in educating Judgment. — Show how the law of 
ascent is violated. What mistake is made about memory ? Explain 
the mistake of dragging pupils through work which they do not 
understand. Point out two mistakes that you have observed. 



200 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



CHAPTEK Xy. 



EDUCATION OF REASON. 

By this is meant the development of the power to 
discern cause-relations. Thinking is discerning rela- 
tions. When we conceive 
we discern class-relations; 
as, anhnal^ vegetaUe. 
When we judge w^e dis- 
cern truth - relations ; as, 
God is love. When we 
reason we discern cause- 
relations ; as, we are hajy- 
jyy because we are good. 
We conceive, judge, and 
reason ; thus we elaborate 
crude notions into science, 

I. Relations of Reason 
AND Definitions of 
Terms. 

Reason crowns the in- 
tellectual pyramid (see cut, 
page 154). We treasure 
rich stores of intuitions ; 
we modify our experi- 
ences ; we think our particular notions into general no- 
tions, and these into truths, that reason may have mate- 
rials out of which to make science. 

I. Relations. — Self as reason commands all his other 
intellectual powers. Necessary-intuition furnishes rea- 




>^"w,' 



RELATIONS OF REASON AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 201 

son the necessarj-trutlis as a fulcrum on which to place 
his lever to move the world. Necessary-ideas, gener- 
alized into necessary-truths, make reasoning possible. 
Judgment supplies the propositions out of which self 
as reason makes his arguments and in which he ex- 
presses his conclusions. Keason serves as well as com- 
mands / reason assists in the formation of percepts and 
concepts and judgments and ideals. 

II. Terms Defined. — Our faculties are simply our 
capabilities to do acts different in kind. A faculty is 
merely a distinct native energy of self. Keason is the 
native energy of self to infer conclusions. 

1. Reason is the capability to discern new truths through re- 
lated truths. A man is rational because he discerns the reasons of 
things. The brute perceives the apple falling, but does not discern 
the cause; the brute is not rational. 

2. Reasoning is discerning groimd-relations. Reasoning is in- 
ferring conclusions. Virtue is its own reward; truth-telling is a 
virtue ; therefore truth-telling is its own reward. Whenever we say 
intelligently such words as hence, because, and therefore, we evidently 
reason. Reasoning is discerning conclusions. 

3. A reason is an inference from premises. You give a reason 
for inverting the divisor in division of fractions, or for the course 
you are now pursuing. In all cases a reason includes the premises 
and a conclusion. One and sometimes both premises are unexpressed, 
but they are always implied. A syllogism is a formal statement of 
a reason. 

4. Education of reason is the development of the power to dis- 
cern cause-relations and think knowledge into system. It is the 
culture of the capability to understand the universe. We educate 
reason when we develop the power to infer new truths through 
related truths. 

5. Faith or belief is confiding in our conclusions. We investi- 
gate to the utmost and reach conclusions. We accept these conclu- 
sions as true, trust in them, act on them. We thus study history 
and build science. 



202 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



II. Impoktance of Reason-Culture. 

Not to educate reason is to limit one's knowledge to 
his perceptions, and leave him to grope his way in a sea 
of inexplicable mystery. To such a one the universe is 
a maze without a plan, and life is not worth living. 
Contrast the vigorous thinker with the dawdling dream- 
er, and you have a striking object-lesson. 

1. Cultured reason gives one a rational imiiverse. 
As reason grows more and more vigorous, all things be- 
gin to assume proportion and harmony. Substance, en- 
ergy, law ; space, duration, cause ; planets, suns, sys- 
tems ; plant, animal, man — all things fall into system, 
and make for us the music of the spheres. 

2. Education of reason gives independence. The 
student acquires power, to investigate, and thus to dis- 
cover truth for himself. He becomes a self-helper, an 
independent thinker, an original w^orker. He finds out 
the relations of the facts of history, discerns the logic 
of mathematics, and penetrates the secrets of cause and 
effect in the natural sciences. 

3. Education of reason gives r)iastery. Educated 
reason is the power, and knowledge is the lever that 
moves the world. Sometimes, instead of mastering 
them, a student is mastered by geometry and chemistry. 
To such a student these sciences are a source of weak- 
ness. Mastery gives strength, and educated reason 
gives mastery. Knowledge mastered gives increase of 
power. 

4. Culture of reason Tnultiplies the vahces of re- 
meinbrances. Why is it useful for us to know the 
past ? As a guide to the future ; inasmuch as the past 



GROWTH OF REASON. 



203 



has been thus and so, we reason that the same will be true 
in the future. Without reason we would be unable to 
project the future. Many reasons 
for the culture of reason will occur 
to you. Does it not seem marvelous 
to you, this neglect of reason-culture ? 

III. Growth of Reason. 

While it is true that all the fac- 
ulties grow together, it is equally 
true that some faculties reach full 
activity later than others. Of all 
the intellectual powers, reason acts 
most feebly in childhood and is the 
latest to reach full vigor. The eas- 
iest problems are difficult for the 
child ; but the boys and girls easily 
solve much more difficult problems, 
and youths laugh at problems vastly 
more intricate. Each one is famil- 
iar with these facts, and hence with 
the growth of reason. " The child's 
first steps toward reasoning consist 
in making simple deductions or in- 
ferences from palpable facts by the 
comparison of two objects, one or 
both of which are present. This 
concrete form of reasoning is used 
by children ivomfive to twelve years 
of age. But reasoning in a higher 
form, that in which the mind deals 
with the relations of facts established by observation 



204 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

and experience, and also with tlie relations of abstract 
ideas, rarely hegins to develop hefore the child attains 
his twelfth or fourteenth year / and then several years 
must be devoted to the exercise of this power before 
the mind can clearly comprehend that which requires 
purely abstract reasoning to make it known." * This 
faculty seldom asserts its predominance before the six- 
teenth year, nor does it usually reach full activity be- 
fore the twentieth year. When called systematically 
and persistently into vigorous activity, reason grows 
more and more powerful up to the meridian of life, and 
it may be kept vigorous even in advanced old age. 
Plato, Bismarck, and Yon Moltke have given evidence 
of immense reasoning power in advanced life. 

lY. Laws of Reason-Growth. 

As reason involves all our other powers, the laws of 
reason-growth must be studied in view of this fact. 

I. General Laws. — These laws are the ways in which 
self must put forth effort in order to growth. These 
laws, stated in terms of reason, are as follows : 

1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in discern- 
ing cause-relations educates reason. Eeasoning under 
guidance develops reason. From generals we infer 
particulars ; through particular truths we discern gen- 
eral truths. Thus w^e think up to laws and create 
science. 

2. Law of means. Studies which call reason into 
vigorous and persistent activity are valuable means for 
reason-culture. 

3. Laio of method. Systematic and persistent plans 

* Calkins. 



MEANS OF EDUCATING REASON. 205 

of work which necessitate the vigorous use of this 
power develop reason. Herbart speaks of school meth- 
ods as the well-ordered self-activity of the pupil m in- 
vestigating under the leadershi]) of the teacher. 

11. Special Laws.— Dr. Payne claims that the laws 
of ascent and descent in the mind-world are as compre- 
hensive, as well established, and as widely apphcable as 
the laws of gravitation in the matter-world. Around 
these laws are grouped many of the most helpful edu- 
cational principles as well as some of the most hurtful 
educational fallacies. Plato and Aristotle taught m ac- 
cordance with these laws. The new education embodies 
these laws in practice ; the old education ignored them 
both in theory and practice. Working in harmony 
with the laws of ascent and descent educates reason 
Such work calls into wise activity all the intellectual 
powers and tends to their harmonious development. 

1 Law of ascent. The mind ascends through par- 
ticulars to generals. It ascends through intuitions to 
concepts, through concepts to judgments, through re- 
lated judgments to conclusions. 

% LaiD of descent. The mind descends from gen- 
erals to particulars. It descends from reasons to judg- 
ments, from judgments to concepts, from concepts to 
intuitions. It descends from aggregates to elements, 
from the complex to the simple, from the vague to the 
definite. 

Y. Means of educating Eeason. 
Reason is self reasoning. You infer that the nver 
is frozen because the temperature is below zero. Eea- 
son is simply your power to infer conclusions from pre- 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



mises. IS^othing except reasoning can educate reason ; 
but we reach power by means of knowledge. Knowl- 
edge is valuable as an instrument of mind, both as a 
fulcrum and lever : but mind is the power. In educa- 
tion knowledge is valuable as a means of eliciting men- 
tal eifort, and hence as a means of culture. 

Table of Reason-Culture Values.— Such studies as tend to call a 
faculty into most vigorous activity are the best means for its educa- 
tion. This we call the specific-culture value of a study. Those 
studies which call forth the best efforts of self as reason, have the 
highest reason-culture value. The values in column 1 are the au- 
thor's, in column 2 those of Dr. Edward Brooks, in column 3 those 
of Dr. W. T. Harris. You may put your estimates in column 4 and 
the averages in column 5. 



REASON -CULTURE VALUE OF 



Mathematics 

Natural and physical sciences , 

Language and literature , 

Psychology, logic, philosophy 

History, political economy, sociology. 



'' Mathematics is a science of reasoning ; nearly every one of its 
truths is related to and derived from some previous truth. The 
pupil can hardly proceed a single step in mathematics, if it is prop- 
erly taught, without bringing into exercise the faculty of reasoning. 
This is not true in the same sense nor in a comparable degree of 
any other science." * 

"Mathematics is usually ranked first as a means of reason- 
culture, but only a small proportion of our reasoning is mathemati- 
cal, nor is that reasoning of a high order. Psychology, moral 
philosophy, history, biology, jurisprudence, philology are all superior 
to mathematics for educating reason and good judgment." f 

" The sciences are the grand instrumentality for the education 
of reason. There could not be a better school for the culture of the 
faculties of reflection." :}: 



* Dr. E. Brooks. 



t Dr. W. T. Harris. 



X Gabriel Compayrd. 



METHODS OF EDUCATING REASON". 207 

Methods of educating Reason. 

Reason is the capability of self to investigate. It 
includes in its operations discrimination and assimila- 
tion, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. 
It calls into its service all our other cognitive powers, 
and thus descends from aggregates to elements and 
ascends from elements to systems. 

I. Elementary Methods. — These are systematic and 
persistent plans of work adapted to the development of 
budding reason. They are the methods of our element- 
ary schools. 

1. Lead the child to make easy inferences. Reason 
acts feebly now, but these feeble efforts prepare for 
greater things. Dimly the child discerns simple cause- 
relations in its narrow world ; hence it may be led to 
make easy inferences and thus strengthen reason. The 
child burns its fingers, and thereafter avoids fire, be- 
cause it infers that tire burns. All real teachers study 
children with intense interest. Preyer found that his 
boy used why intelligently when little more than three 
years old. You will be delighted to observe and foster 
the budding reason of the children committed to you. 

2. Be satisfied with obvious inferences. But see 
that the pupil actually reasons. Reasoning alone can 
educate reason. Carefully guard against the hurtful 
policy of attempting too much. Abstract reasoning and 
committing logical formularies are very much out of 
place during this period. In many attractive ways the 
wise teacher incidentally leads the pupils to make bold 
and apparent inferences. 

3. Lead the jpiipils to find out. From ten upward 



208 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tlie learner discerns clearly objective cause-relations. 
Boys and girls are trained to tell why^ and say intelli- 
gently, hecaitse. In arithmetic tliey give a reason for 
each step. In history they are led to discover cause- 
relations between events. In language-lessons they are 
trained to think and to analyze thought. In botany 
and zoology they are led to infer for themselves. 

II. Advanced Methods. — From the fourteenth year 
upward the student investigates and finds out for him- 
self. Before this period his questions were : " What is 
it ? " and " How is it ? " Now he asks also : " Why is 
it ? " " Whence is it ? " and " AVhat can I do with it ? '^ 
Self as reason seeks answers to these questions, and sys- 
tematic and vigorous endeavor to find answers develops 
the thinking powers. 

1. Lead the student to investigate. This includes 
all that we mean by methods. You incite a burning 
desire to know. You lead the learner to form habits 
of effective j)enetrating thought. You train him to 
discriminate and assimilate ; to analyze and synthetize ; 
to induce, deduce, and reduce ; to descend from aggre- 
gates to elements and ascend from elements to systems. 
For some time learners investigate under your leader- 
ship, but they become more and more independent and 
self-reliant. 

2. Lead the learner to discuss. Discussion is in- 
vestigating with others. Written and oral discussion 
develops penetrating and sturdy reason. Ideas fight. 
Iron sharpens iron. Conflict of minds develops power. 
Lawyers discuss, investigate in open court^ and become 
an overmatch for other men. The class-room is the 
place for joint investigation. The teacher presides and 



METHODS OF EDUCATING REASON. 209 

leads. Each student becomes an aggressive investiga- 
tor. Each exposes the mistakes of his fellows, and 
clearly and forcibly presents his own views. Instead of 
being a place for stupid rehearsals, the class-room be- 
comes a place of intense mental activity. The result is 
marvelous development of thought-power. Discussion 
calls forth a student's best efiorts. An hour of intense 
conflict often does more to educate reason than years of 
dreaming. This is the method in which great men and 
great women are educated. 

3. Lead the student to so study mathematics as to 
develop reason. Mathematics has been considered the 
best means for reason-culture ; hence Benton reviewed 
geometry annually for many years to sharpen and keep 
vigorous his power to reason. For the same purpose 
Lincoln, after serving as a member of Congress, pro- 
foundly studied geometry. Mathematics treats of re- 
lated truths. Each intelligent step necessitates reasoning. 
Because the work compels the student to constantly put 
forth effort, it develops skill in mathematical reasoning. 
But mastery is the essential result of good methods. 
We must so teach mathematics as to secure mastery on 
the part of the student. 

4. Lead the student to so study science as to edu- 
cate reason. Each one for himself gains elementary ex- 
perience by direct insight into the sense-world, the self- 
word, and the world of necessary realties. The student 
is now prepared to appropriate the vicarious experience 
of the race. He first thinks his notions of individual 
things — e. g., this horse, this memory, this space ; into 
general notions — e. g., quadruped, memory, space. Now 
he thinks his general notions into truths, as, man is mor- 

14 



210 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tal. Finally lie discerns through related truths cause- 
relations and infers conclusions. Through particular 
truths he thinks more general truths, and from general 
truths he infers particular truths. 

5. Lead the student to so study language, liter a- 
ture, and history as to educate reason. History is a 
record of events, as causes and effects. Constructing 
for one's self a rational history of Greece or Kome or 
England or France is a tremendous effort of reason, and 
gives scope and vigor to this power. The investigation 
method of studying history, language, and literature 
calls reason into constant and vigorous exercise. 

6. The investigation method of studying psycholo- 
gy^ logic, and philosophy educates reason. High think- 
ing is necessary to mastery. These tremendous fields 
of research demand penetrating and long-sustained 
thought. In grappling with these mighty themes rea- 
son attains its greatest power. Aristotle, Bacon, Hegel, 
stand for the great thinkers. 

Mistakes in Reason-Cultuke. 

The unthinking masses ! This is the exclamation of 
all the ages. Individuals think, but the millions drift. 
" The heights by great men reached and kept, 
"Were not attained by sudden flight ; 
But they, w^iile their companions slept. 
Were toiling upward in the night." 
"Why this dearth of thinkers ? The answer comes 
slowly and sadly, Our schools fail to develop the art 
and habit of high thinking. 

1. Crowding memory and neglecting reason. Even 
geometry is absorbed rather than mastered. In our 



MISTAKES IN REASON-CULTURE. 211 

eagerness to acquire facts we do not take time to re- 
flect. Mental indigestion and a race of learned weak- 
lings must be the result. Fewer facts and more mental 
force will work a tremendous revolution. 

2. Feehle thinhing. The teacher lectures while the 
students recline on " downy beds of ease." The cardi- 
nal principle of some school-keepers is, " So manage 
that the student will be called upon to do nothing that 
the teacher can do for him." Is it any wonder the 
world is full of timid and feeble thinkers ? The great 
need of our times is a host of vigorous thinkers. Bet- 
ter teaching is imperative. Better teachers is the 
world's great want. 

3. Misty thinhing. Teaching is always misty when 
the teacher is a misty thinker. " Possibly 2 -}- 2 = 4." 
"It may be true that things which are equal to the 
same things are equal to each other." To such a teach' 
ing nothing is clear, nothing is certain. Each study is 
a jumble. Like teacher, like pupil. Such teaching is 
a sorrowful failure. 

4. Too much mathematics. Mathematics has its 
place in reason-culture ; but when it assumes to cover 
all the ground it is time to protest. The culture and 
knowledge given by mathematical studies are, at most, 
merely the preparations for exploring other fields of 
research. The educator must have broad views. 

5. Tediousness. " Tediousness," says Herbart, "is 
the great sin of instruction." It is even more repre- 
hensible in the school-room than in the pulpit. It is 
everywhere the deadly foe of thought. Then we have 
no right to thus afflict our pupils. You will deserve to 
be called a saint if you can spend a day in some schools 



212 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING 

and not long to take the wings of the morning. The 
tediousness, misnamed thinking, is simply excruciating. 
6. Failure to thinh knowledge into system. Things 
out of their relations are worthless. A finger discon- 
nected with the hand is worthless ; a hand disconnected 
with the arm is worthless ; so also an arm disconnected 
with the body is worthless. Sensations not assimilated 
into concepts are wasted ; concepts, not assimilated into 
truths are of little value ; and truths not thought into 
system are squandered. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Helpful Books. — Principles of Education, Practically Applied, 
and Methods of Teaching Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, by 
Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., are admirable 
and helpful books. J. A. McLellan, in his Applied Psychology, gives 
excellent suggestions in his presentation of the art of questioning. 
Spencer and Huxley have made valuable contributions along this 
line. 

letter on Reason-Culttire. — This is a grand theme. You can 
afford to think deeply and write your best. You want to lead your 
friend to strive more earnestly to educate reason. 

I. Relations of Reason and Definitions of Terms.— Show the posi- 
tion of reason in the cut, page 2 ; also in the cut, page 154 Show 
and illustrate the relation of reason and necessary-intuition ; of rea- 
son and judgment ; of reason and memory. Give and explain your 
definitions of reason; of reasoning; of a reason; of education of 
reason; of faith; of doubt; of unbelief. Ascend the cognitive 
pyramid by defining each cognitive power and its product. 

II. Importance of Reason-Culture.— Tell why you count reason- 
culture so important. Explain as best you can the neglect of rea- 
son-culture. Should sex be considered in the education of reason? 

III. Growth of Reason.— How early does the child reason ! How 
do children reason from the fifth to the twelfth year % What do you 
mean by concrete reasoning % abstract reasoning ? When does rea- 
son become fully active? Show that reason may be kept vigorous 



CULTURE OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS. 213 

even in advanced old age. Why do you object to abstract work for 
young pupils'? 

IV. Laws of Reason-Growth. — What is meant by an educational 

law ? State in terms of reason the law of effort ; the law of means ; 
the law of method. Explain Herbart's definition of method. State 
the law of ascent ; the law of descent. What do you mean by the 
old education? by the new? Where do you class Squeers and 
Gradgrind ? Socrates and Plato ? 

V. Means for educating Reason. — Why do you place geometry 
high ? What studies do you place highest ? Place on the board the 
table of culture-values, giving your estimate in column 4 and aver- 
ages in column 5. Do you place geometry higher than Latin ? 

VI. Methods of educating Reason. — Show that you educate all 
the intellectual powers in educating reason. What kind of infer- 
ences do you lead young pupils to make ? Why do you object to 
young children committing logical formularies ? Can you lead boys 
and girls to investigate for themselves ? Is it best to encourage 
them to discuss? Explain your notions of advanced methods of 
educating reason. What questions does the child ask? the boy? 
the youth? What do you mean by investigation ? by discussion ? 
How will you so teach geometry as to educate reason? science? 
language? psychology? logic? 

VII. Mistakes in Reason-Culture. — Why do we say "the un- 
thinking masses " ? How do great men reach the heights ? State 
one of the causes of mental indigestion. Why have we so many 
feeble thinkers ? Can there be too much mathematics ? What does 
Herbart say about the sin of tediousness ? Is this the unpardon- 
able pedigogical sin ? 



CHAPTEE XVL 

CTJLTUKE OF THE THOUGHT-POWEKS. 

Thinking is discerning relations. We discern cor- 
relations — we think things into groups ; we discern 
^/'t^^A-relations — we tliink our notions of tilings into 
truths ; we discern cause-relaitions — we think truths into 



214 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

reasons. Thinking is indicated by such terms as dis~ 
crimination and assimilation, analysis and synthesis, 
induction and deduction. We reflect, we consider, we 
investigate, we thinh ; we gain insight, we understand, 
we comprehend I we infer, we conclude, we reason. 

Thinking is knowing things in their relations. A 
man is endowed with powers of direct insight into the 
world of things and their necessary conditions ; but to 
the unthinking man the universe is a maze without a 
plan. Thought changes chaos into order. Everything 
takes shape and falls into rhythm. The sciences shine 
resplendent, presenting all things in their relations. A 
well-ordered solar system, with the sun as its center, 
becomes a member of an infinite host of harmonious 
worlds. God, the infinite and eternal energy from 
which all things proceed, becomes the loving Father, 
and man becomes a candidate for immortality. 

Thinking educates the thought-powers. "When I 
was a child I thought as a child, but when I became 
a man I thought as a man." Culture makes the dif- 
ference. Child-thinking, under guidance, leads up to 
profound thinking. " Education implies instruction, 
which is twofold. On the part of the child, it is the 
constant building in of power and knowledge in his 
mind by the systematic right exertion of all his powers. 
On the part of the instructor, it is the intelligent stimu- 
lation, direction, and control of the activities of the 
child, with a view to his education. The instructor in- 
structs only as he secures the upbuilding of the child by 
the child's own exertions. The two must cordially co- 
operate. The education of the child should begin with 
his life, and when, by the aid of others, he reaches that 



CULTURE OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS. 215 

state in which he will make the best use of all his 
powers, he is prepared to carry on his education 
through life himself." * 

Good teaching leads to good thvnking. Is it reason- 
able to expect the great body of our teachers to become 
educational artists ? " IS'o, emphatically No," answers 
one of our ablest superintendents. "All that we can 
hope for is that the mass of our teachers will do their 
work passably well as directed by experts. It is con- 
summate nonsense to expect the average teacher to 
learn psychology and the science of education." Is 
this the lesson of sixty centuries of human experience ? 
Are the educators of the race doomed to be drudges ? 
Must they forever grope their way ? Must our teachers 
be mere artisans, toiling mechanically as directed by 
masters? It can not be. The twentieth century has 
great things in store for humanity. The teachers will 
work in the light of the thought and experience of the 
race. They will be as familiar with the mind-world 
and mind-growth as they are now with the plant-world 
and plant-growth ; they will govern their pupils into 
self-government and guide them to self -guidance. Even 
now such teachers are becoming a mighty army. Good 
teaching is becoming the rule and not the exception. 

Plain living conditions high tJiinhing. Not many 
rich are called. Nearly all the leaders in the world of 
thought come from the ranks. Luxurious living makes 
profound thinking impossible. We commiserate the 
rich man, not Lazarus. Lotze and Ladd assure us that 
dismal failure awaits all attempts to even conceive of 
cerebral processes as correlated with thought-processes ; 

* Boyden. 



216 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

but somehow good thinking and a good brain go to- 
getber. The culture of the thought-powers, therefore, 
must be based on the art of right living. 

Exploring the plant and animal worlds cultivates 
the thought-powers. Below the high school, botany and 
zoology are the very best science studies. The plan 
now pursued in many elementary schools of devoting 
the fall term to zoology, the two winter terms to geog- 
raphy, and the spring term to botany, gives admirable 
results. No better plan seems possible. These sciences 
ought to be given a large place in our schools be- 
cause of their universal interest, the ease with which 
materials may be obtained, and the abundant oppor- 
tunity for original observation, comparison, and thought. 
In all departments simple experiments and specimens 
should be studied, and not words. Only a little science 
should be given at any one lesson ; technical terms 
must be avoided; scholars should be made to think 
with the teacher, and then by themselves under the 
guidance of the teacher. At first only the simplest 
illustrations should be used and the more common 
materials taken into consideration. The working teach- 
er will manage to give easy lessons in physiology, phys- 
ics, and chemistry, but will not permit these lessons to 
interfere with the work indicated above. 

Simplifying the studies of children helps. " That 
education is the best, not which imparts the greatest 
amount of knowledge, but which develops the greatest 
amount of mental force. The mind must have leisure 
to work by itself on the materials supplied, otherwise 
the thinking faculties become paralyzed, and dead knowl- 
edge becomes a substitute for living. The mind be- 



CULTURE OF THE THOUGUT-POWERS. 217 

comes a passive recipient of knowledge, becomes in- 
capable of making fresh combinations and discoveries. 
Cramming is the rapid acquisition of a great deal of 
knowledge ; education is mastering a small amount of 
knowledge. Cramming stultifies ; education develops 
thought-power." * 

Thought-Lessons are Language-Lessons. — "Words are 
not only the instruments for the expression of thought ; 
they are also the instruments of the thinking process. 
Human speech is the complement of human reason. 
'No act of thinking is complete till its products have 
been set forth in words. Each lesson should be a lesson 
in language, because it is a lesson in thought. 

" Every lesson, in all stages of learning, is given to 
awaken the self -activity of the child, to occasion thinking. 
It is only by questioning that we can determine whether 
the final step in the thinking process has been taken, 
since this step is the act of expression itself. If we are 
giving a simple object-lesson for the exercise of percep- 
tion, we know that the child has got the idea and com- 
pleted his act of thinking when he has the right word 
for the idea and can use it properly and promptly. If 
we give a lesson which demands the thinking of rela- 
tions, we know that the act of thought has been per- 
formed when it is expressed in definite propositions. 
So, in all stages of intellectual development, the charac- 
ter of the mental product is shown in the character of 
the expression which we are able to elicit. The teacher 
must not be deceived by the earnest plea, ^ I know, but 
I can not tell.' Zet the thing he clearly seen^ says Hor- 
ace, and the willing loords will follow. The un- 

* T. G. Rooper. 



218 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

doubted educational procedure, therefore, is : first the 
thought, then the oral expression of the thought, then 
the written expression of it. Thus the interaction be- 
tween thought and expression will finally result in the 
best thought possible to the mind in its presumed stage 
of growth." * 

Apperceiving is thinking our Experiences into Unity. 
— Self inherits past experiences but unifies them. The 
present and the past are integrated, and this integration 
is accomplished through discrimination, comparison, 
and selection. This sort of bringing of things together 
into the object of a single judgment is of course essen- 
tial to all thinking. The things are conjoined in the 
mind ; the thinking them is thinking them together. f 

"Apperception is that activity of synthesis by which 
mental data of every kind (sensations, percepts, con- 
cepts) are constructed into higher forms of relation. It 
is the essential mental act in perception, conception, 
judgment. Aj^perception singles out that act of mind 
which is common to them all— the relating activity of 
attention— and thus by its general application emphasizes 
the unity of the intellectual function as a whole. When- 
ever by an act of attention mental data are unified into 
a related whole, this is an act of apperception ; and in 
its discriminating, selecting, and relating results, the 
concentration of attention is called apperception." J 
{Study Apperceiving, p. 89.) 

* J. A. McLellan. f WUli am James. ;[ J- Mark Baldwin. 



PART IT. 
EDUCATION OF THE EMOTIONS, 



CHAPTER XVII.— The Emotions. 

XVIII. — Education op the Self-Emotions. 
XIX. — Education of the Altruistic Emotions. 
XX. — Education of the Truth-Emotions. 
XXI. — Education op the Esthetic Emotions. 
XXII. — Education of Conscience, or the Eth- 
ical Emotions. 



220 



Self- 

Emotions. 

(Egoistic.) 



Social 

Emotions. 

(Altruistic.) 



World- 
Emotions. 

(Cosmic.) 



Hope and Fear ; Exultation and Despair, etc. 
Joy and Sorrow; Gayety and Depression, etc. 
Courage and Cowardice ; Bravery and Timidity. 
Cheerfulness and Gloominess ; Sprightliness, etc. 



( Knowledge. 
Desire for ■< Beauty. 

( Perfection. 



r Life. 

Desire for U^Pf^'- 
[ Esteem. 

Content and Discontent ; Satisfaction and Re- 
gret, etc. 
Humility and Pride ; Meekness and Vanity, etc. 
Etc., etc. 

Love and Hate ; Friendship and Enmity, etc. 

Sympathy and Antipathy ; Pity and Indiffer- 
ence, etc. 

Affection and Disaffection ; Good-Will and Mal- 
ice ; Generosity and Envy, etc. 

Gratitude and Ingratitude; Philanthropy and 
Misanthropy, etc. 

Good-Humor and Anger ; Mercy and Cruelty, etc. 

Honor and Shame ; Equanimity and Confusion. 

Reverence and Scorn ; Admiration and Con- 
tempt, etc. 

Etc., etc. 



r Truth- 



Emotions. 



r Emotions of Curiosity. 
J Emotions of Wonder. 
I Emotions of Surprise. 



(Intellectual.) ^ Knowledge-Emotions. 



Beauty- 
Emotions. 
(iEsthetic.) 



Duty- 
Emotions. 
(Ethical.) 



Emotions of Beauty and Ugli- 
ness. 

Emotions of Humor and Pathos. 

Emotions of Sublimity and In- 
significance. 



f Emotions of Right and Wrong. 

Emotions of Ought and Ought 
Not. 

Emotions of Approval and Re- 
morse. 

Emotions of Merit and Demerit. 

Etc.. etc. 



PART FOUHTH. 

EDUCATION OF THE EMOTIONS, 



CHAPTER XYIL 

THE EMOTIONS. 

We think ; we also enjoy and suffer. "We remem- 
ber ; we alsoy^^Z pleasure and pain. We perceive ; we 
alsoy^^Z agitations and impulses. We gain knowledge ; 
we also hunger and hope and love and desire. We 
call these agitations and impulses, enjoyments and suf- 
ferings, pains and pleasures, y^^Z^V^^^. We know soine- 
Th F li \ Sensations, thing and feel somehow. When 
' ] Emotions, feelings are occasioned by affec- 
tions of the body they are termed sensations^ but 
when they are occasioned by ideas they are termed 
emotions. 

Feeling, with its color-tone of pain and pleasure, enters into all 
conscious life. Feeling is an original mode of the operation of con- 
scious mind. Self is active in feeling. Feelings are occasioned, and 
not caused. Sensor-excitations occasion sensations, sensations occa- 
sion ideas, and ideas occasion emotions. All feelings are character- 

^ ized by tone, strength, rhythm, and 

Characteristics I StTeLth ^''^^'"^- ^«^^« refers to the pleasure or 
of the Feelings, i Rhvthm* P^^^ of feelings. Strength veiers to 

I ^ \ ' intensity of feelings : now love is gentle 
Content. . , ^ i. i i 4. 

*- as evenmg breezes, now turbulent as 

the tornado. Rhythm refers to the time and form of feelings : anger 



222 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

rises and falls like the waves of the sea. Content refers to the activi- 
ties occasioning feelings. The content may be simple, as when we 
behold a green surface ; or complex, as when we are stirred by pa- 
triotism. No hard and fixed lines can be drawn about the different 
classes of feelings. In fact, a strict classification of the feelings from 
either the physiological or the psychological standpoint seems to be 
impossible.* 

I. The Emotions are Feelings occasioned by Ideas. — 

The telegram announcing the return of your friend 
occasions your joy. In view of knowing, you feel. 
Your feelings occasioned by knowledge are called your 
intellectual feelings, your rational feelings, your spirit- 
ual feelings. These higher feelings are known as the 
emotions. Sensations are never thouglit of as emotions. 

1. An emotional jpower is a capability for a dis- 
tinct hind of feeling. I feel grateful to my friends ; 
my native energy to feel grateful is called gratitude. I 
love my mother ; my native energy to love is an emo- 
tional power, but loving is an emotional act. When 
we tliink of an emotion we include in the notion both 
the feeling and the power to feel ; thus, when we think 
of anger, it means to us the capability to feel anger as 
well as the angry feeling. It is neither possible nor 
desirable to define strictly each one of our numerous 
emotions. We can, however, group our emotions and 
study these groups. 

2. TJie emotions tnay he grouped as self-emotions^ so- 
Self-Emotions. cial emotions^ and world- 

(Egoistic.) emotions Self emotions 
^''(AltruTtlcT'' ^^^ ^^^ personal feelings; 
World-Emotions, social emotions are our 

(Cosmic.) feelings toward others ; 
* Ladd. 



The Dmotions. 



THE EMOTIONS. 223 

world-emotions are our feelings in view of the true, the 
beautiful, and the good. This classihcation is easy and 
exhaustive, and is considered the best possible for edu- 
cational purposes. We study with interest and profit 
the profound theories and complex classifications of 
Horwicz, Bain, Porter, and others, but we see no way 
to harmonize or practically apply these schemes. They 
hinder and do not help the teacher. 

3. Emotions are occasioned hy ideas. The term 
ideas, as here used, includes all our cognitions. Experi- 
ences, immediate and revived, awaken emotions. We 
speak of fond recollections as well as pleasant experi- 
ences. Ideals as well as ideas occasion pleasure and 
pain. Reasons occasion agitations and impulses. It is 
convenient, however, to designate as ideas whatever 
occasions emotions; sights and sounds are transmuted 
into ideas before they occasion hopes and fears. 

Sensations. — These include all feelings which have their origin 
in the physical organism. The cravings of the appetites and the in- 
stinctive impulses appear as sensations. These are termed animal 
feelings, because they are common to man and brute ; they are also 
called physical feelings, because of their physical origin. Some of 
these feelings are occasioned by affections of the special sensor-or- 
gans, and are termed special sensations ; others are occasioned by 
affections of various organs and tissues of the body, and are termed 
general sensations. Sensations occasion ideas and ideas occasion 
emotions. (See Chapter II.) 

II. The Self-Emotions are Feelings occasioned by Ideas 
pertaining to Self. — These are the emotions that minis- 
ter to self and look to self -betterment. ' They are our 
native impulses to make the most of ourselves, and 
are referred to as the personal emotions, the egoistic 
emotions, the self -emotions. Ideas referring to self 



224 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

awaken the self-emotions. Praise occasions joy, and 
blame occasions sorrow. 

III. The Social Emotions are the Eeelings occasioned 
by Ideas pertaining to others. — They are the feelings 
which minister to others and look to social betterment ; 
they are our native energies to feel for and with others ; 
they are our impulses to do the most for our fellows. 
These feelings are spoken of as the social emotions, 
the altruistiG emotions, the sympathies, the affections^ 
Ideas referring to others awaken altruistic emotions. 
Kindness occasions gratitude and unkindness strife and 
anger. 

lY. The World-Emotions are the Feelings occasioned 
by Ideas pertaining to the True, the Beautiful, and the 
Good. — These are the emotions that minister to cosmic 
life ; they inspire us to mingle with the universe, be- 
come philosophers, artists, Christians. These are called 
the higher emotions, the world-emotions, the cosmic 
emotions. Ideas referring to the true, the beautiful, 
and the good awaken these feelings, and hence they 
( Truth-Emotions. ^^^^ called the z^ri^-^^/i -emotions. 

Cosmic ) Beauty-Emotions, the heauUj -QmoilOYi^, and the 
Emotions. / TA J. T-i i.- -.- 

I Duty-Emotions. diity -QinoHon^. Emotions oc- 
casioned by truth are termed truth-emotions ; emotions 
occasioned by beauty and humor are classed as beauty- 
emotions ; emotions occasioned by right and wrong are 
called duty-emotions, ethical emotions, and emotions 
of conscience. Conscience is self feeling duty-emotions, 
as memory is self remembering ; but we think of con- 
science as our capability to feel ethical emotions, and 
we think of these feelings as emotions of conscience. 
Thus conscience stands for our moral nature. Moral 



THE EMOTIONS. 225 

education is the education of conscience, as aesthetic cult- 
ure is the development of taste. Conscience is supreme 
in the emotion-world, as reason is in the intellectual 
world, and choice in the will-world. Conscience is the 
one imperative in the mental economy ; its impulses are 
mandates. 

Y. Education of the Emotions. — AYhen fostered, an 
emotion becomes refined and powerful. Power is de- 
veloped by effort. Muscular power is developed by 
muscular effort, intellectual power by intellectual effort, 
and emotional power by emotional effort. The aesthetic 
emotions of the artist become refined and powerful be- 
cause they are constantly cherished. An emotion re- 
pressed grows w^eaker; one who habitually represses 
his fiery temper acquires self-control. In educating our 
emotional nature we foster all ennobling hnpulses and 
repress all degrading feelings. 

1. Knowledge and emotion. Emotion is occa- 
sioned by knowledge. Special emotions are occasioned 
by special kinds of knowledge. We feel because we 
know. Our emotions act in the light, and we reach 
the heart through the head. Even love not enlight- 
ened by intellect is blind and brutal. God is reason as 
well as love. Paul, the peerless logician, loved and 
cared for all the churches. In the presence of appro- 
priate knowledge all our better emotions spring forth. 
We study to interest our pupils in such knowledge as 
will awaken and cherish the ennobling emotions. 

2. Educate the heart as well as the intellect. When- 
ever we educate intellect at the expense of the heart we 
make a vital mistake, and we may expect our pupils to 
grow into cold, hard, matter-of-fact, unsympathetic, un- 

15 



226 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

aesthetic, and unethical men and women. We starve 
the healthful and ennobling emotions in order to over- 
feed the intellect ; we defraud our pupils out of their 
birthright to a world of love and beauty and duty. Ed- 
ucation is the harmonious development of all our capa- 
bilities. The soul is endowed with emotions and will 
as well as intellect. A person is educated when his 
emotions and will and intellect are harmoniously devel- 
oped. The educator seeks to develop and discipline 
every energy of the soul, that the person may attain 
the highest usefulness and happiness of which he is 
capable. 

Heart, as now used, stands for our emotional nature. In other 
ages, and notably in Bible times, heart stood for the intellect, and, 
like our term mind, was often used to include the entire self. 
Bowels, as bowels of mercy, formerly stood for our emotional nature. 

3. Emotion-culture conditions intellectual culture. 
The intellectual emotions, including interest in study ^ 
love of knowledge, the pleasure of discovering knowl- 
edge, the pleasure of pursuing knowledge, the pleasure 
of detecting logical consistency, and the love of truth, 
are tremendous forces in education ! Well does Ham- 
ilton ask, "What can education accomplish without 
an appeal to the feelings ? " And then there are also 
the various forms of the sesthetic sentiment and the 
moral sentiment. How often does the instructor forget 
to stimulate into activity these mighty forces in educa- 
tion, forgetting that all vigorous self-development of 
the intellect is based on a large development of the 
feelings ! 

4. The true teacher faithfully roots the emotions into 
good hahits. " While home, society, the state, and tlie 



THE EMOTIONS. 227 

Church do much to mold the character of the young, there 
still remains a profound responsibility resting upon the 
teacher. After he limits the scope of his work by mak- 
ing due allowance for pre-natal influences and for what 
is necessarily done for the child by other agents, he still 
has an important function to perform, which grows out 
of the nature of his office and the continuity of the re- 
lation between him and his pupils. The molding influ- 
ence of a good teacher upon the character of his pupils 
is beyond computation. The fundamental virtues of 
civil society — regularity, punctuality, silence, obedience, 
industry, truthfulness, and justice — are developed and 
impressed in a good school as nowhere else. Here the 
child learns to be regular in his attendance, punctual in 
the beginning and the ending of every duty, silent 
when others should speak, obedient to the rightfully 
constituted authority, industrious in the discharge of 
the duty lying next, truthful in the scope and the de- 
tails of whatever he undertakes to tell, and scrupulously 
just in allowing others what of right belongs to them. 
From a man who habitually practices all these virtues 
what more need be demanded ? And these are pre- 
eminently school virtues. These it is the business of the 
teacher more than of any other agent to create. Their 
constant practice in school is essential to his own suc- 
cess and that of his pupils." * 

5. Self-control is paramount in education. Sub- 
mission of the emotions to reason is essential in charac- 
ter-building. We foster and carry over into action all 
ennobling impulses, but we repress and restrain our 
wayward feelings. We cherish and strengthen gener- 

* Larkin Dunton. 



228 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

osity, but stifle envy. Education of the emotions is 
subjugating them to reason. Wq strengthen helpful 
feelings by holding in mind the ideas which occasion 
them, but we weaken hurtful impulses by refusing to 
entertain the ideas which give rise to such feelings. 
Emotional education is developing self-control. It in- 
cludes the repression of noxious feelings, as well as the 
development of elevating emotions. In the culture of 
our emotional nature we suppress hurtful feelings, just 
as we suppress hurtful weeds in vegetable culture. We 
repress and restrain our lawless impulses, while we cher- 
ish our ennobling emotions. 



CHAPTEE XYIII. 

EDrCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 

By this is meant the development of the feelings 
that make for self -betterment: Infinite Wisdom has 
planted deep in every human heart the desire for per- 
fection. Each one feels burning impulses to excel, 
and to make the most of himself. The individual is 
cardinal in the mind-world. Society is at its best when 
it does the most for its individual members. A person, 
a self, is our highest possible conception. Great men 
and women are the bright stars in the firmament of 
history. Education does most when it makes the most 
out of individicals, and gives the world its Platos and its 
Dantes and its Washingtons and its Wesleys. 

I. Relations of Self-Emotions and De&iitions. — The 
emotions stand midway between intellect and will. 



RELATIONS OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 229 

Because we feel impulses to act, our emotions are called 
our motive powers. Self as intellect knows, self as emo- 
tion desires, self as will does. 

Relations. — Few realize the importance of the ego- 
istic emotions in the mental economy. Teachers and 
parents need to study profoundly the child as an emo- 
tional being. {In cut, jp. 2, point out the positimi of 
the self -emotions. In diagram, p. 229, give the self 
emotions named, and mention others.) 

1. delations to the appetites. The egoistic emo- 
tions should dominate the appetites. The brute is 
dominated by its appetites, and lives to eat. The man 
should dominate his appetites, and eat to live. The 
appetites are animal cravings, which aj^pear to us as 
organic sensations, and which look to the well-being of 
the body. Instinct guides the brute in the gratification 
of its appetites, but a man controls his appetites, sub- 
jecting them to law. We desire to make our bodies the 
best possible servants of self, and not the masters. 

'2. Relations of the egoistic emotions to intellect. 
Feelings not illuminated by intelligence are blind and 
brutal. Emotions are occasioned by ideas. Wq feel 
because we hioio. Intellect is the eye of emotion. As 
intellect, self finds out the laws of our physical and 
mental economy, and as egoistic emotion desires to 
obey these laws. 

3. Relation of the self-emotions to will. "Will is the 
effort-making power of self. We know, we feel, we 
will. Ideas pass over into emotions and emotions pass 
over into determinations and acts. Our desires for self- 
betterment lead us to so choose and act as to make the 
most of ourselves. 



230 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Definitions. — It is difficult to define our feelings. 
AVe all know what joy is because we experience it ; but 
to tell what it is gives us pause. In order to define a 
feeling it is necessary to translate it into terms of know- 
ins:. It is doubtless best to think the emotions into 
groups, and to form clear notions of these groups. 

1. The egoistic emotions are our native energies to 
feel in view of everything affecting ourselves. Love of 
life is egoistic. Self-love is the standard. The com- 
mand is, " Love your neighbor as yourself." 

2. The self-emotions are the feelings occasioned hy 
ideas affecting self I desire knowledge ; this feeling 
is a self-emotion. Desire expresses both the feeling 
and the capability to desire. 

3. Education of the egoistic emotions is the develojp- 
tnent of the feelings that tnalcefor self-hetterment. The 
repression of all hurtful self-emotions is implied. We 
cultivate cheerfulness and repress despondency. We 
thus educate our emotional nature and gain self-control. 

II. Importance of educating Self-Emotions. — That ideas 
may grow into character they must pass over into emo- 
tions and become resolves and acts. Eight emotions 
are as important as right thinking. 

1. Culture of self emotions leads to the formation 
ofdesirahle habits. Hopefulness, cheerfulness, courage, 
and all elevating egoistic desires, when fostered, grow 
into right habits. The culture of the self-emotions 
fosters sweetness of disposition and all noble aspira- 
tions, and likewise represses and restrains lawless im- 
pulses. 

2. Educated egoistic emotions dominate the ajpjpe- 
tites. The body is the organism through which self 



GROWTH OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 231 

works. The appetites are cravings for bodily needs, 
and must be so satisfied as to make the body the best 
possible instrument of the mind. Early and always a 
self must control his body with its appetites. 

3. The culture of the self-emotions helps to malce 
life worth living. Our aims in life beconie exalted. 
The desire for excellency inspires the best efforts, and 
lifts one above the low and beastly. A grand life is 
always worth living. The joys of such a life are almost 
infinitely greater than the beastly pleasures of one who 
lives to eat and drink and dance. 

III. Growth of the Personal Emotions. — Sensations 
make up a large part of child-life. The appetites are 
autocratic. Of all the feelings occasioned by ideas the 
self -emotions earliest become active. Study the child. 
You find that most of the egoistic emotions are active 
before the sixth year. Some of these feelings, such as 
the desire for perfection, become active later. These 
emotions are all very active before the fourteenth year, 
but some, such as hope and courage and patience, go on 
developing through life. The early activity of the 
egoistic emotions indicates the importance of the early 
culture of these feelings. Even in childhood these emo- 
tions must be so strengthened as to control the ap- 
petites. 

lY. Laws of Self-Emotion-Cultnre. — Many teachers 
go on from year to year without analyzing the emotions. 
Their notions about the feelings are vague and shadowy. 
To such teachers culture of moonshine has as much 
meaning as culture of the emotions. Long and careful 
study of the emotion-world leads to the discovery of 
laws relating to the development of the emotions. The 



v^ 



r^ 



232 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

teacher profoundly studies these, and labors to acquire 
skill in their application. 

1. Galling the egoistic emotions into constant^ vigor- 
ous, and lawful activity educates these feelings. The 
habit of feeling cheerful and hopeful develops cheer- 
fulness and hope. An emotion grows strong when 
cherished, and becomes feeble when repressed. 

2. Egoistic linowledge tends to develop the egoistic 
emotions. Biography and history lead one to contem- 
plate self in others. The study of the superiority and 
achievements of great men and women calls our self- 
emotions into vigorous activity. Egoistic literature 
fosters the desire to make the most of self. 

3. Candying egoistic emotions over into acts tends 
to educate these feelings. Emotions not carried into 
acts are wasted. Our emotions become strong when 
they habitually become resolves and acts. We stifle 
wrong feelings by refusing to act on them. 

Y. Means of Self-Emotion-Culture. — Emotions are oc- 
casioned by ideas. Jjimiciou&^raise as a means of self- 
emotion-culture is placed first, and wise reproof next. 
Judicious praise fosters the ennobling emotions. Wise 
reproof checks unwholesome and egotistic feelings. 
Good companionship is of great value. Personal litera- 
ture deserves a high place, and biography easily stands 
highest ; history comes next, and then come the best 
works of fiction. Good family and school government 
ranks liighest. Whatever is calculated to work in us 
high resolves may become a means for the culture of 
the self -emotions. 

YI. Methods of educating the Self-Emotions. — These 
are plans of work that foster the helpful and repress the 



EDUCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 233 

hurtful self -emotions. What do we want to do ? We 
wish to cherish self-respect and all ennobling self-emo- 
tions, and likewise restrain all wayward impulses. We 
seek to cherish all feelings that look to self -betterment, 
and repress emotions that minister to self-degradation. 
We stimulate hope and courage, and repress fear and 
cowardice; we cherish good-humor and cheerfulness, 
and repress sourness and melancholy ; we foster the 
desire for self -betterment, and stifle low and sinful 
desires ; we cherish true self-love, and repress egotism 
and selfishness. How can we best do this ? 

Kindergarten and Primary Methods. — We spare no 
efforts to improve our methods of intellectual culture, 
but we scarcely even think of methods of emotion- 
culture. Yet who will say that heart-culture is less 
important than intellectual culture ? 

1. Mother inflitence. As the self-emotion twig is 
bent, so the self-emotion tree inclines. Here the work 
of mothers and kindergartners is of the highest impor- 
tance. In fostering desires for proper food and drink 
to satisfy natural appetites, in cherishing budding self- 
respect, in stimulating cheerfulness and courage and 
hopefulness and all uplifting desires, and in repressing 
all hurtful self -emotions, the mother and the kindergart- 
ner do untold good and avert incalculable evil. 

2. Favoring environments. As we place fine plants 
and animals under the most favorable influences, so we 
ought to do with the children. Favorable surroundings, 
loving treatment, kind words, cheerfulness, and pleasant 
employment work wonders. But the primary teacher 
must do the best for her pupils, however faulty their 
previous treatment. As a diseased body may be re- 



234: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

stored to health, so a deformed soul may be educated 
into harmony. 

3. Develop self-respect. Show the pupil that you 
respect him. Train the children to show respect for 
each other. Your hearty approbation and judicious 
praise will produce marvelous results. The desire to 
be worthy, and the hope to merit your loving approval, 
greatly stimulate self-respect. 

4. Develop a good disposition. Hopefulness, cheer- 
fulness, good-nature, sweetness, patience, contentment, 
joyousness, enter into such a disposition. As you pro- 
mote the development of these emotions you form in 
the child a good disposition. Embody these excellences 
in yourself, and they wdll appear in all your acts and 
words and tones. Your example will prove magical. 
You will be able to win back to health the most dis- 
torted and ugly dispositions, as well as greatly improve 
dispositions already good. 

Intermediate Methods. — The egoistic emotions are 
highly active in boys and girls, and require the most 
careful direction. Many details here are not needed. 
You will use a wise discretion, and so do the best you 
can. Above all, you will deal directly with each pupil, 
and try to make the most of each one. 

1. Develop high ideals. In manhood we work out 
the plans and work up to the ideals that pleased our 
youthful fancies. How important, then, that these 
plans and ideals should be worthy ! At this period 
boundless possibilities seem within easy reach. Wild 
fancies hold sway. Ideals are likely to be low and sen- 
sual. If not elevated, they are likely to be realized in 
depraved and vicious men and women. It requires the 



EDUCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 235 

utmost skill of the wisest educators to save the bojs and 
girls, and to lift them up to a higher hfe. Leading 
pupils to see how ugly and unworthy these sensual and 
low ideals are does much to remove the rubbish and 
prepare the way for better ideals. Studying the lives 
of noble men and women stimulates our desires for supe- 
riority and greatly elevates our ideals. We need to give 
the young concrete lessons and line upon line. When 
each one is led to create for himself a worthy ideal of 
life, a life full of hope and courage and cheerfulness 
and patience and high desires and noble achievements, 
a foundation is laid for a grand life. 

2. So teach as to foster mo/nliness. Lead the pupil 
to conquer for himself. Each victory strengthens hope, 
self-satisfaction, patience, courage, and the desire for 
mastery. Pupils thus taught become manly and self- 
reliant, and grow into admirable men and women. Pu- 
pils improperly taught lack manliness. They are bullied 
and belittled for not doing impossibilities. Every reci- 
tation is an hour of defeat and humiliation. They be- 
come discouraged and despondent. They lose self- 
respect and courage and manliness. They become 
hopeless, dependent, incapable of effort ; and they grow 
into gloomy, sour, dissatisfied, inefficient men and 
women. 

3. So govern as to rightly educate the self-emotions. 
Lead the pupil to govern himself. I^ow his duty-emo- 
tions are active, and he can be led to do right. I^ow his 
affections are also active, and he may be led by sympa- 
thy. Pupils thus governed are orderly, industrious, 
cheerful, joyous, sweet, good-natured, manly. Bad gov- 
ernment mars. Fear takes the place of hope ; force, of 



236 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

affection ; blame, of praise ; cruelty, of kindness. Pu- 
pils are driven, not led. Such government tends to 
foster every hateful feeling ; instead of a burning desire 
for knowledge, hatred for forced study is created. Pu- 
pils thus governed tend to become everything undesira- 
ble ; disorderly, ugly, morose, sour, cowardly, unmanly. 

High-School Methods.— Youth is the trying time of 
life. The destinies of the many, for weal or woe, depend 
on self-control during this period. The feelings now be- 
come passions, and, like floods, when uncontrolled sweep 
to ruin. The educator relies largely on the egoistic 
emotions to carry the youth safely through, this critical 
period. 

1. Stinmdate the desire for jperfection. We are 
placed in a universe where law reigns. Our highest 
desire is, perfection through law. We desire physical 
perfection through conformity to physical laws. We 
desire mental perfection through conformity to the laws 
of mental growth. We desire moral perfection through 
conformity to ethical laws. Creative Wisdom drafts the 
plan of each life, and each one is endowed with a burn- 
ing desire to carry out this plan by making the most of 
himseK. The imperative " he ^jerfect " throbs in every 
fiber of the human heart. The youth creates a high 
ideal of a grand manhood. This becomes his working 
model in building his character. Appetites and pas- 
sions, like steam and electricity, must be so controlled 
as to make and not mar. Every low impulse must 
be stilled, and every noble impulse cherished. The 
burning desire to know the most and be the most and 
do the most inspires the youth to subjugate his way- 
w^ard impulses. 



EDUCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 237 

2. Foster the desire for hnoidedge. Kindle in the 
hearts of the young an insatiable thirst for knowledge. 
Lead them to realize that an hour with Plato or Shake- 
speare is better than years of giddy pleasure. Man is 
sometimes called the knowledge-seeking animal. The 
brute feels no desire for truth ; it simply gratifies its 
appetites and is content. Man desires truth, and counts 
wisdom the most precious of all things. His appetites 
are merely his law-abiding servants. Happy the youth 
that hungers and thirsts for truth ! 

3. Cherish a desire for heaidy. The universe is full 
of beauty, and we are endowed with strong desires to 
enjoy it, to produce it, to be it. Beauty of form, beauty 
of motion, beauty of color, beauty of sound, beauty 
of sentiment, beauty of character ; sublimity, humor, 
beauty ; whatever guise it takes beauty tends to lift us 
up. Truth and beauty are twin-sisters, and co-workers 
to refine and elevate. 

4. Encourage the study of personal literature. Bi- 
ography does most to strengthen personal emotions. 
History as now written does almost as much as biogra- 
phy to educate the self -emotions. The best fiction exerts 
a powerful influence in this direction. Personal essays 
are of value. Such literature arouses the egoistic emo- 
tions and stimulates the desire to do w^hat others have 
done and be what others have become. The youth be- 
comes saturated with the cumulative lessons that noble 
manhood and high success come through self-denial, 
self-control, uprightness, earnestness, and perseverance. 

Lead the youth to looJc well to the outcoriie of life. 
The fool blindly rushes on to ruin. These human 
wrecks that strew the pathway of time were victims of 



238 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

uncontrolled appetites and passions. Tliey are the dan- 
ger-signals. Fortunate tlie youth who heeds these 
warnings, and refuses to tread the path of folly and 
death ! 

YII. Mistakes in the Treatment of the Personal Emo- 
tions : 

1. Neglect. Few really understand the mighty influ- 
ence of the egoistic emotions in the mental economy. 
Karely does the teacher even attempt the systematic 
culture of courage and cheerfulness, and the desire for 
self-betterment. 

2. Mistakes in govermnent. Appeal to fear is all 
too common. The pupil is treated more as a machine 
than as a self-determining person. Such management 
is the worst possible preparation for life. 

3. Injudicious jpraise. Egotism and selfishness come 
of misdirected self-emotions. Flattery fosters these de- 
formities. Judicious jDraise is the pure balmy air, but 
flattery is the fatal sirocco. 

4. Demeaning. The pupil is called a blockhead. 
Such belittling epithets as take away all self-respect are 
used unsparingly. This is monstrous. It is a great 
thing in education to lead the pupil to think w^ell of 
himself, and inspire him with confidence and courage 
and the desire to excel. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Self enjoys as well as knows. What terras designate our abilities 
to enjoy and suffer ? What does the heart stand for '? 

Letter. — Tell your friend about the heart-world. Make for hira 
a diagram of the emotions. Give him your best thoughts about the 
culture of the egoistic emotions : 

1. Position of the Self -Emotions and Terms defined.— Point out 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 239 

the relations between ideas and emotions and between emotions and 
resolves. Define the emotions ; the egoistic emotions ; education 
of these feelings. Show the relations of the egoistic emotions to the 
appetites ; to the intellect ; to the will. 

2. Importance of Self-Emotion Culture. — Why do you count emo- 
tion-culture important ? Is intellectual-culture more important ? 
Show that culture of self-emotions tends to good habits. Ought the 
egoistic emotions to dominate the appetites ? Why do you consider 
the culture of the egoistic desires highly important ? 

3. Growth of the Self-Emotions. — What feelings are autocratic in 
childhood? How early do you find the self-emotions active in chil- 
dren? Before what year do these feelings become very active? 
What reasons can you give for the early culture of the self-emotions? 

4. Laws of Self-Emotion Culture. — Does law reign in the emotion- 
world ? State the law of effort in terms of self-emotion culture ; 
law of means ; law of methods ; law of action. Mention a special 
law that you have discovered. What do you mean by education 
and culture as applied to the emotions? 

5. Means of Self-Emotion Culture. — Why do you place judicious 
praise first ? Which do you estimate of highest value for the culture 
of the egoistic emotions, good companionship or personal literature? 
Do you find history more helpful than biography ? Give your esti- 
mate of the value of fiction in the culture of the self-emotions ; of 
good school government. 

6. Methods of educating Self-Emotions. — How do we educate self- 
emotions ? What self-emotions do we cherish ? What self-emotions 
should we repress? Is heart-culture less important chan intellectual 
culture ? What do you mean by kindergarten methods of educating 
the self-emotions ? by primary methods 1 by intermediate methods ? 
by high-school methods? State and explain four directions for 
primary work ; four for intermediate work ; four for high-school 
work. 

7. Mistakes in educating Self-Emotions. — Are these mistakes vital ? 
Why IS self-emotion culture neglected ? What mistakes are made in 
government? Explain the danger of injudicious praise ; of demean- 
ing the pupil. Why should pupils be led to think well of them- 
selves ? Mention some of the mistakes that you have noticed. 



240 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

EDUCATION OF THE SOCIAL EMOTIONS. 

By this is meant tlie right culture of our feeling for 
others. Our capabilities to feel in view of ideas per- 
taining to others are our altruistic emotional powers, 
and these feelings are altruistic emotions. These emo- 
tions are called fellow-feelings, social emotions, aifec 
tions, and altruistic emotions. All our emotional en- 
dowments are God-given capabilities, and their lawful 
activities are God-approved. But intelligence underlies 
the rational emotions, guiding these and restraining 
those. Feelings not thus guided are blind and brutal. 
Bestraint is as essential as stimulus in emotional culture. 
"We cherish love and restrain hate ; foster kindness and 
stifle cruelty ; praise generosity and disparage envy. 
The child thus educated grows more and more lovely. 

I. Importance of educating the Altruistic Emotions.^ 
Man is pre-eminently a social being. Culture of the 
social emotions does most to elevate human society. 
Savages are egoistic ; Christians are altruistic. Altru- 
istic-culture immeasurably increases human happiness. 
Each one becomes his brother's keeper, and is happy 
because he seeks to make others happy. Altruistic-cult- 
ure makes for the brotherhood of man, and fits man for 
the companionship of angels. 

II. Growth of the Altruistic Emotions. — In compari, 
son with the appetites and the egoistic emotions the 
altruistic emotions are feeble in childhood. Quite early, 
however, the child manifests in some degree sympathy, 
jealousy, emulation, affection. Sympathy first appears 



GROWTH OF THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 241 

as a feeling of pity or commiseration for others. The 
pains first sympathized with are of course the famiKar 
bodily feelings, such as cold, fatigue, injury, together 
with the simple emotional states, as fear and disappoint- 
ment. A very young child will show unmistakably the 
signs of dejection and sorrow at the actual sight or nar- 
ration of another child's sufferings ; and the lower ani- 
mals, with their simple, easily apprehended emotional 
experiences, come in for a considerable share of this 
early pity. Affection appears first in response to mother- 
love. Up to the tenth year the chila is largely a being 
of sensations, appetites, and self-emotions. The social 
emotions become quite active during boyhood and girl- 
hood. After the fourteenth year the altruistic emotions 
begin to dominate, and are fully active by the eighteenth 
year. From ten to eighteen is pre-eminently the period 
for the culture of the social emotions. 

III. Laws of Altruistic-Emotion Growtli. — Most per- 
sons go on from year to year in a hap-hazard way, en- 
tertaining the most misty notions of the emotions and 
their culture. But to the thoughtful such culture seems 
of the highest value. Here, as everywhere, law reigns. 
To educate the social emotions we must find out and 
observe their laws of growth. 

1. General laws. The great educational laws must 
be restated in terms of the altruistic emotions. (1) Law 
of effort. — Well-directed efforts in cherishing the be- 
nevolent and repressing the malevolent emotions edu- 
cate these feelings. (2) Law of meam,s. — Altruistic 
knowing, feeling, and doing are means of altruistic- 
culture. (3) Law of method. — Systematic, lawful, and 
persistent plans of work which foster all right feelings 
16 



242 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

and repress all malevolent impulses educate the altruistic 
emotions. 

2. Special laws. Eacli group of human capabilities 
has its own peculiar laws of growth which educators 
find out and observe. Attention is called to two im- 
portant laws looking to the culture of the social emo- 
tions : (1) Feeling for and with others develops altru- 
istic emotions. Cherishing all kindly feelings renders 
one warm-hearted and unselfish. (2) Doing kind acts 
educates the altruistic emotions. How the mother learns 
to love her helpless child ! Hov/ the teacher learns to 
love her needy pupils ! 

lY. Means of educating the Altruistic Emotions. — 
We feel kindly emotions in view of ideas pertaining to 
others. Whatever tends to call forth such feelings may 
become a means of altruistic-culture : (1) Favorable 
environments call forth kindly emotions and suppress 
malevolent feelings. (2) Kind companions do most, as 
love begets love. Cruel companions arouse all hateful 
emotions and give us our street gamins. (3) Altruistic 
literature is invaluable in the education of the social 
emotions. Such books as George MacDonald's works 
can hardly be prized too highly. The l^ew Testament 
is the one perfect book for altruistic-culture. (4) Al- 
t7mistic doing gives the highest culture to these feel- 
ings. Habitually doing kind deeds develops all kindly 
feelings. 

y. Methods of educating the Altruistic Emotions. — 
Systematically and persistently putting forth kindly 
feelings educates these emotions. This we can not do 
by simply willing it, any more than we can call back 
past experiences by an act of will. But we can com- 



EDUCATION OF THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 243 

mand the ideas that occasion altruistic emotions, and 
hence can systematically and persistently arouse these 
feelings. Well-matured plans of work are essential in 
the art of promoting character growth. 

Kindergarten and Primary Methods. — From infancy 
to age all kindly feelings need to be cherished and all 
unlovely emotions repressed. The utmost skill is needed 
in the management of little ones. 

1. Environments. Throw around the child the 
most favorable social influences. Surroundings do much 
to make children kind and generous or cruel and self- 
ish. Anna has enjoyed from infancy kindly influ- 
ences — a kind mother, kind teachers, and kind com- 
panions ; now she is an unselfish, kind, lovely girl. 
Her brother John, almost from infancy, has lived 
in the streets, surrounded by all vile influences, and is 
now a selfish, cruel, repulsive boy. Blessed is the child 
that grows up in the atmosphere of love ! 

2. Management. Wise management educates the 
altruistic emotions. The rule of love develops love. 
Kind treatment awakens all kindly feelings. Provoke 
not the child to anger. Avoid arousing hateful feel- 
ings. 

3. Manners and Morals. Concrete lessons in man- 
ners and morals cultivate the altruistic emotions. In- 
deed, the enduring foundations of noble characters 
must thus be laid. The teacher finds here a rich and 
boundless field for altruistic-culture. 

4. Doing. Deeds of kindness develop social feel- 
ings. Little acts of kindness on the part of the child 
develop the kindly feelings. Parents and teachers can 
so manage that the child will continually feel the im- 



244 APPLIED PSYCnOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

pulse to give kind looks, speak kind words, and do 
kind acts. 

Intermediate Methods. — The waywardness of boys 
and girls is proverbial. During the period of transition 
from childhood to youth the social emotions need to be 
carefully cherished in order that they may dominate 
the appetites and selfish impulses. 

1. Kind treatment is always salutary. But boys 
and girls must not be babied. The manly and womanly 
feeling now becoming active must be respected. As 
the instrument responds to the touch of the musician, so 
the hearts of the boys and girls respond to kind treat- 
ment. 

'2i. Altruistic literature is exceedingly helpful. The 
men and women who live in the hearts of the millions 
are those who love their fellow-men. The best literature 
is altruistic. Such works as MacDonald's Sir Gihhie^ 
Mrs. Swing's Story of a Short Life^ Dickens's David 
Copperfield, and Holland's Nicholas Minium help won- 
derfully. The I^ew Testament will always take the 
first place in the culture of the affections. 

3. Life-lessons in manners and morals enter into the 
fiber of altruistic-emotion culture. In character-building 
these lessons need to enter into the warp and woof of 
thought and emotion. Kindly emotions are thus rooted 
into habits. Boys and girls become gentlemen and gen- 
tlewomen. 

4. Habitual deeds of kindness immensely strengthen 
the altruistic emotions. Kind looks, kind words, and 
kind deeds that flow from kind hearts make the heart 
doubly kind. Kindly feelings that do not become 
kindly acts are wasted. 



EDUCATION OP THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 245 

High-School Methods. — Youth is the danger period. 
Most offenders go astray while in their teens. Appe- 
tites and emotions become seething passions, and when 
uncontrolled lead to vice and crime. The pathway of 
life is strewn with youthful wrecks, who haunt the sa- 
loons, the gambling-dens, and the house of infamy, and 
who mingle in society but to corrupt and blast. The 
danger is appalling, but the very vehemence of youth- 
ful emotion may prove the anchor of safety. 

1. Right ihinhing ocGasions right feelings. We 
educate our altruistic emotions when we think lovingly 
of others. How bounteous are the blessings showered 
upon us by our fellows, our country, and our God ! 
These thoughts arouse within us all kindly and gen- 
erous impulses. The educator puts forth his best efforts 
to lead generous, impressible youth in these lovely altru- 
istic paths. 

2. Carrying altruistic emotion over into altruistic 
doing develops all generous feelings. The good Samari- 
tan carried his noble sympathies over into deeds of kind- 
ness. Jesus wept, but at the same time he called back 
the dead Lazarus to comfort the weeping sisters. To 
suffer our kindly impulses to dissipate unacted, is to 
squander these precious feelings and neglect great op- 
portunities. 

3. Enlisting all our powers vn the service of a nolle 
love educates the social emotions. " Love is the climax 
of the feelings, and it should comprehend all the inter- 
ests and command all the powers of the mind. To do 
this, the objects of its devotion must be able to unite all 
the discriminations of the mind in harmony, and elicit 
all its active powers. Love of God, love of humanity, 



246 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

love of country, love of children, lias led to the devel- 
opment of the noblest lives. But when mere pleasure 
becomes the end of love, it corrupts all the other powers, 
and the pleasure itself at last will pall. To be worthy 
to stand at the head of the feelings, love should be pre- 
pared to undertake all duties and endure all sufferings. 
Attachment to anything seems a slight affair at first, 
but experience reveals the deeper truth in time." * 

4. Love needs cidtivation to he at its hest. Love does 
not reach its best by being left to itself. It reaches its 
best only by persistent culture. Youthful love is a feeble 
sentiment and merely a germ of matured love. If a 
love is not worthy, it were better to neglect it, and so 
let it die ; but if it be a worthy love, it ought to be 
cherished and cultivated, that it may become the most 
enobling. It is the same with love for God as with 
love for our fellows ; we can not love God as we ought 
unless we cultivate our love for him. 

VI. Treatment of the Unkindly Emotions. — The thoughtful parent 
and the wise teacher will here make a solemn pause. What must be 
done with this host of dreadful emotions — anger, envy, jealousy, 
hate, enmity, malice, antipathy, blasphemy, scorn, cruelty, ingrati- 
tude, contempt, revenge? Unrestrained, these feelings make for 
harm. They hurt, and do not help. They are malevolent emotions, 
which tend to bitterness, strife, revenge, rivalry, murder, war. They 
fill all lands with wails of woe. No panacea for the treatment of 
these dangerous emotions can be given, but parents and teachers 
and society can do much to alleviate the evils. Each one can learn 
to restrain these feelings : 

1. Avoid their excitation. " Parents, provoke not your children 
to anger." Study how not to arouse hateful feelings. When con- 
tinually excited these feelings grow into hateful passions ; but when 
not excited they become feeble by non-use. 

* G. H. Palmer. 



EDUCATION OF THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 247 

2. Repress malevolent emotions. We cherish kindly feelings but 
repress unkindly emotions. We smother anger as we do devouring 
flames. We stifle malice and envy, and cruelty and selfishness. We 
discourage in every way all hateful feelings, and thus repress and 
weaken them. 

3. Restrain hateful emotions from becoming hateful acts. These 
feelings have a remarkable tendency to become acts, and thus mul- 
tiply their intensity. Cain's anger became angry words and murder. 
We can not always avoid these evil emotions, but we can restrain 
them from becoming acts. Every such act of restraint is a victory 
that tends to weaken as well as curb hurtful feelings. 

4. Overcome hate hy love. We have a thousand reasons for lov- 
ing where we have one for hating. Think of these and read of 
these. By cherishing all kindly feelings we overcome hateful im- 
pulses, 

YII. Mistakes in educating the Altruistic Emotions,— 

Human well-being is promoted bj the culture of tliese 
feelino^s. KeHects and blunders here cause deer)est 
woe, and human history tells the tale. 

1. Neglect. Men explore dark continents, but fail to 
explore the human heart. We take infinite pains to 
educate reason, while we suffer the noxious weeds of 
hateful emotions to grow luxuriantly and smother out 
love. Surely the culture of the affections is not less 
important than the culture of the intellect. 

2. Misdirection. Even love is degraded by becom- 
ing a slave to appetite. Thus the most ennobling emo- 
tion becomes a dangerous egoistic passion. Our affec- 
tions are most precious, and deserve to be so directed 
as to work the noblest ends. 

3. Waste. Your sympathies do not lead you to 
action. You sympathize with Lazarus, but leave the 
dogs to lick his sores. Altruistic emotions which do not 
in some way become resolves and acts are squandered. 



248 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

4. Reading too much emotional literature. Many 
thus waste their sweetness on the desert air, and become 
poor indeed in real sympathy. Expect not kindness 
from the constant reader of emotional literature. One 
who lives in an imaginary world and finds no pleasure 
in relieving real suffering ceases to be a practical plii- 
lanthropist. "Whenever and wherever you feel kindly 
impulses, see to it that these emotions become generous 
resolves and deeds of kindness. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Letter. The social emotions and their culture is a fruitful 
theme. Nowhere do we approach closer to the source of human hap- 
piness. You can write a thoughtful, earnest letter to your friend. 
The culture of the social emotions demands our best efforts. 

I. Give your definition of the altruistic emotions ; of the culture 
of these feelings. Is sympathy developed among brutes ? Are sav- 
ages altruistic ? How does altruistic-culture make for human hap- 
piness ? Give three reasons for the culture of the social emotions. 

II. What feelings are most active in childhood ? What social 
emotions become active earliest ? Trace the growth of sympathy. 
Describe the growth of the altruistic emotions during boyhood ; 
during youth. 

III. State in terms of altruistic emotion the law of effort ; law 
of means; law of method; law of sympathy ; law of doi7ig. Tell 
about a special law relating to altruistic-culture that you have dis- 
covered. 

IV. What do you consider the best means for altruistic culture I 
Give your estimate for this purpose of environments ; of companion- 
ship ; of altruistic literature : of altruistic doing. What book do 
you place highest ? Mention other valuable works. 

V. What do you mean by methods of educating the social emo- 
tions? by Kindergarten methods? by primary methods? by high- 
school methods ? Give some directions for the culture of the social 
emotions during childhood ; during boyhood ; during youth. 

VI. How should we treat the unkindly emotions ? Why should 



EDUCATION OF THE TRUTH-EMOTIONS. 249 

we avoid exciting these feelings'? What are the effects of repressing 
these emotions'? Why should we restrain hateful emotions from 
becoming hateful acts ? 

VII. Why do teachers neglect altruistic-culture ? Do you con- 
sider the education of the social emotions as important as the edu- 
cation of memory '? Show some of the ways in which our social feel- 
ings are misdirected and wasted. Why do excessive novel-readers 
become hard-hearted'? State some of the mistakes that you have 
noted in altruistic-culture. 



CHAPTEE XX. 

EDUCATION OF THE TRUTH- EMOTIONS. 

The student is in love with truth. When we speak 
of the true, the beautiful, and the good, we mean by 
the true the realm of knowledge. Truth is agreement 
^ , with reality — as true ])iogra- 

Curiosity. pKYj ^^'^^ history, true science. 

Emotions ^ ^^^^^^ for truth. Wisdom is philosophic truth. 
Love of truth. ^he wise man discerns the 
■' ' deeper truths of life and walks 

in the paths of wisdom. The fool, though learned, 
despises wisdom and walks in the paths of folly. Cult- 
ure of the truth-emotions is the development of the 
love of truth. The delights we feel in view of truth 
are our truth-emotions. We feel joy when we solve 
the hard problem, for the answer is true. Every step 
upward is a delight, for it is the mastery of a new 
truth. We hate the false, and love the true. We de- 
sire the true, and feel disgust for all shams and pre- 
tenses and falsehoods. 

I. Eelations of the Tmth-Emotions. — So strikingly 



Tnith- 






250 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

are these feelings related to knowing, that they are 
sometimes called the intellectual emotions. 

1. The truth-idea is intuitive. By direct insight we 
gain the truth-idea. We stand face to face with the 
true as with all necessary realities. "We gain the truth- 
idea just as we gain the space-idea and the time-idea and 
the cause-idea. Before I can say that this or that state- 
ment is true, I must have the truth-idea.* 

2. Discernment of truth occasions truth-emotions. 
We are so constituted that discovering truth and con- 
templating truth and using truth give ns high delight. 
Open-eyed wonder, intense curiosity, joy of discovery 
and conquest, desire for knowledge, love of truth, spur 
us on from infancy to age. 

3. The truth - emotions are feelings occasioned hy 
truths discerned. Emotions are feelings occasioned by 
ideas. The peculiar emotions we experience in the 
presence of truth are termed the truth-emotions. The 
child explores the wonder-world of matter; the youth 
explores the wonder-world of mind; the man explores 
the wonder-world of philosophy ; the immortal explores 
the wonder worlds of God's wisdom. The boundless de- 
lights occasioned by new discoveries are truth-emotions. 

4. Education of the truth-emotions is the develop- 
ment of the love of truth. Truth is more precious than 
diadems, for it is the food of the soul. We do most for 
others when we lead them to love the truth. This is 
cardinal in education, and must determine matter as 
well as method. 

II. Importance of educating the Truth - Emotions. — 
The most despicable of all characters is the man who 

* See pp. 36 and 80. 



EDUCATION OF THE TRUTH-EMOTIONS. 251 

" loveth and maketh a lie." " You are a liar" is counted 
the greatest possible insult. We class the slanderer 
with the murderer. 

1. The love of truth characterizes the noble man. 
Compare Washington and ISTapoleon. A truthful man 
is the noblest work of God. From infancy np the love 
of the true and the hatred of the false must be in- 
grained. 

2. The love of truth characterizes the science-maher. 
He earnestly seeks to know the truth, the whole truth, 
and nothing but the truth. All misleading theories, all 
bias, all lies and half-truths, are torn away. lie seeks to 
stand face to face with realities, and find out truth. 

3. The love of truth is the fountain of jperjpetual « 
youth. The joy of finding new truths keeps the soul 
forever young. This is the pleasure that never cloys. 
There is an ever-increasing joy in beholding new truths. 
The pleasures of exploring an infinite universe, when a \ 
billion years have passed, will be but a beginning of the 
joys in store for those who love truth. 

4. The love of truth exalts and ennobles. It leads 
us to think the thoughts of God after him. It rewards 
us as we ascend higher and higher. Think of the joys 
of Newton, when he discovered the laws of gravitation ; 
of Copernicus, when he discerned the true theory of the 
solar system ; of Franklin, when he found out the iden- 
tity of electricity and lightning. Love of truth gives 
surcease from sorrow. 

III. Time to educate the Truth - Emotions. — How 
early the child feels these emotions can only be con- 
jectured. It is certain that very early the child suffers 
when deceived. Equally early it must enjoy in some ' 



252 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

degree truthfulness. But truth-emotion is feeble in 
childhood. Still, the joy of discovering new truths 
early fills the cup of the young. In these early years 
the truth-habit must be developed. As the years mul- 
tiply the love of truth deepens, and the philosopher 
feels a boundless pleasure as new and grand truths burst 
upon him. Clearly, these emotions need to be culti- 
vated from infancy to age. 

I Y. Laws of Truth-Emotion Culture. — Eeasoning edu- 
cates reason, and enjoying truth educates truth-emotions. 
1. Cherishing trtith-emotions develops these feelings. 
We lead pupils to feel joy in the presence of truth, and 
pain in the presence of the false. 2. Whatever calls 
the truth-emotions into vigorous activity may become 
a means for educating these feelings. All studies may 
be made the means of cultivating the truth-emotions. 
3. Systematic and persistent plans of work that call the 
truth-emotions into vigorous activity tend to develop 
these powers. 4. The habit of truthfulness fosters the 
truth-emotions. Truth becomes precious, and false- 
hood hateful. 

Y. Means for educating the Truth - Emotions. — The 
truth-element is coextensive with intelligence. Cogni- 
tion is finding truth. Truth-ideas occasion truth-emo- 
tion. Truth in nature, in science, in history, in every- 
day life, may be made the means of educating these 
emotions. Character-building is the best means for this 
culture. The Bible, the wonderful gallery of characters 
true to the life, is incomparably the best means for culti- 
vating the truth-emotions. 

Yl. Methods of educating the Truth-Emotions. — Lead- 
ing the child or youth to systematically and persistently 



METHODS OF EDUCATING TRUTH-EMOTIONS. 253 

seek truth for the love of truth and the enjoyment of 
truth educates the truth-emotions. 

1. So teach as to develop a love of Jcnowledge. E'at- 
urallj, the appetency for knowledge is keener than the 
appetite for food. How often you have seen a child 
leave its food untasted to listen to a story or to see the 
passing show ! Pupils wisely taught, hunger and thirst 
for knowledge. JS^o grades, or examinations, or threats, 
or punishments are needed to spur them on. 

2. Cherish the pleasure of discovering truth. You 
remember the story of Archimedes. So teach, that 
your pupils every hour may feel like crying " Eureka ! " 
This is the charm of the Socratic method. This is the 
characteristic of good teaching. 

3. Cherish truth-telling. Telling lies is cowardly 
and base and hateful. The pupil should be led to loathe 
falsehood, and turn from it as from carrion. Truth- 
telling is brave and manly and lovely ; it should be 
rooted into habit. The best boys and girls and men 
and women are truthful. Every day you can press this 
lesson home. Our school readers furnish cases. Our 
literature is replete with examples. Do you sincerely 
love truth ? You will find ways to cherish the truth- 
habit. 

4. Foster truth-doing. Christ said, " I am the truth." 
The martyr cries, " I can die, but I can not deceive." 
Paul, the chained prisoner, "reasoned of truth," and 
made monarchs tremble. How brave, how true was 
Luther ! We almost worship one who embodies truth 
in every look and word and act. How noble ! how 
grand ! 

YII. Mistakes in the Culture of the Truth-Emotions. 



254 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

— All j)lans of work that suppress or fail to stimulate 
the truth-emotions are educational mistakes. 

1. Unwilling tasks are educational hlunders. When 
you force a child to prepare a lesson, you foster a dis- 
taste for knowledge. In giving lessons, lead your pu- 
pils to feel that you are doing them a favor — giving 
them the opportunity to gain truths. "Work is com- 
posed of tasks, while j^lay is made up of games. Tasks 
are as necessary as work, but our pupils must be willing 
workers. 

2. Repulsive work is an educational hlimder. In 
some way you must create an interest. How many girls 
loathe mathematics because the study was made repul- 
sive ! Even the hardest v/ork may be made interest- 
ing. 

3. Bxirdensome work is a mistake. Let the child 
eat too much food, and it will loathe food. Burden the 
boy's memory continually with undigested facts, and 
he will come to loathe study. 

4. Failure to foster a love for truth. The student 
studies for grades and a diploma. How few study be- 
cause they really desire to find out the truth ! Instead 
of being a perpetual joy, school life, too often, is a grind- 
ing drudgery. The student has no heart in it. Dear 
teachers, do you love truth ? Then I know you will so 
manage as to get your pupils in love with truth. Tell 
your friend how to do this in your letter on the culture 
of the truth-emotions. 

5. All shams are hurtful. Deceptions and mis- 
representations are grave mistakes. The deceiver as 
well as the deceived suffers loss. The faith that trusts 
comes of truthfulness. 



^ESTHETIC EMOTIONS IN THE MENTAL ECONOMY. 255 

CHAPTEE XXI. 

EDUCATION OF THE ESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 

By tills is meant tlie development of our capabilities 
to appreciate and enjoy the beautiful, the sublime, and 
the humorous. As beauty predominates, these emo- 
tions are called the heaiUy-emotions. Sublimity and 
humor are treated as forms of beauty. Our capabilities 
to feel in view of the beautiful, the sublime, and the 
humorous are known as the aesthetic emotions. Taste 
is the capability to feel sesthetic emotions. The term 
taste, used in this sense, occurs constantly in literature 
and life. Self as intellect beholds beauty, and as aes- 
thetic emotion appreciates and enjoys beauty. Beau- 
ty is ever concrete. We perceive beauty in things 
beautiful. Self as imagination creates beautiful ideals. 
Our notions of beautiful things, immediate and remem- 
bered, awaken our beauty-emotions. We command and 
educate these emotions by commanding the ideas which 
occasion them. 

I. Esthetic Emotions in the Mental Economy. — The 
cut, page 2, and the diagram, page 209, symbolize the 
position and relations of the aesthetic emotions. Self as 
intellect creates as well as perceives beauty. Art and 
poetry and music are aesthetic creations. Beauty-ideas 
excite beauty-emotions, and beauty-emotions move self 
to create and realize beautiful ideals. 

1. The heauty-idea is intuitive. When we become 
acquainted with beautiful things we become conscious 
of the beauty-idea. Before I can say, " Yonder sunset 
is beautiful ! " I must have the beauty-idea. The beau- 



256 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tj-idea is a necessarj-idea, and is gained by direct in- 
sight.* 

2. The heauty-emotions are feelings occasioned hy 
ideas of heautifid things. Things are beautiful ; we 
are endowed with native energies to feel beauty-emo- 
tions, and we experience emotions of beauty in the 
presence of beautiful things. 

3. Esthetic emotions are feelings occasioned hy 
cesthetic ideas. The aesthetic emotions are the beauty- 
emotions, and include emotions of beauty and ugliness, 
emotions of sublimity and insignificance, and emotions 
of humor and pathos. 

4. Taste is the capahility to feel cesthetic emotions. 
Taste is commonly used as the power of self to appre- 
ciate and enjoy the beautiful. We speak of the good 
taste of cultured persons and the bad taste of unculti- 
vated people. Taste stands for aesthetic emotions. 

5. Education of the cesthetic emotions is the culture 
of our powers to appreciate and enjoy the beautiful, the 
sublime, and the Immorous. Education makes the dif- 
ference between the barbaric taste of the boor and the 
refined taste of the artist and the man of culture. 

II. Importance of .ZEsthetic Culture. — The worlds of 
the true, the beautiful, and the good are co-ordinate. 
We are endowed with powers to understand, enjoy, and 
become a part of these glorious worlds. Esthetic cult- 
ure takes rank with intellectual culture. In our times 
its importance is unquestioned. 

1. Esthetic culture exalts and refines. Contrast 
a prize-fighter and Tennyson. The one is destitute of 
sesthetic culture, and is low, coarse, brutal ; the other, 

* See Intuition, pp. 36 and 80. 



GROWTH OF THE ^ESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 257 

through aesthetic culture, has become a part of the 
beautj-world. Contrast the Greeks and Romans with 
African savages and AustraKan Bushmen. The ele- 
vating effects of aesthetic culture are truly marvelous. 

2. Esthetic culture immeasurably increases human 
happiness. Education is designed to fit us for the high- 
est happiness of which we are capable. ^Esthetic cult- 
ure prepares us to enjoy a universe of beauty. It at- 
tunes the human heart to thrill with joy in the presence 
of beauty in all its myriad forms. 

3. ^Esthetic culture fortifies against low vices. One 
who enjoys the beauties of Nature and poetry and song 
and holiness learns to despise degrading vices. Love of 
the beautiful opens the heart to all good influences and 
closes it to all the grosser vices. 

III. Growth of the JEsthetic Emotions. — These feel- 
ings are feebly active in our early childhood and grow 
with our physical growth. Physical beauty attracts the 
young. Soon the child learns to enjoy simple melodies 
and simple poetry. At every step in education care 
should be taken to cherish these feelings. From the 
age of fourteen to eighteen is considered the period 
especially favorable for the development of the higher 
aesthetic emotions. Through life these emotions must 
be kept active. The aged men and women whose 
aesthetic emotions are active and strong are still young. 

ly. Laws of JEsthetic Emotion-Growth. — As think- 
ing promotes the growth of reason, so tlie enjoyment 
of beauty promotes the growth of the beauty-emotions. 

1. General educational laws. These are here stated 
in terms of the aesthetic emotions. Wisely enjoying the 
beautiful, the sublime, and the humorous develops the 
11 



258 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

sestlietic emotions. "Whatever tends to call into vigor- 
ous activity the sesthetic emotions may be made the 
means for educating these feelings. Systematically and 
persistently calling into vigorous activity the aesthetic 
emotions educates them, 

2. Special laws. Esthetic emotions have their own 
peculiar laws of growth. The educator searches out these 
laws and works in harmony with them. (1) Efforts to 
create beautiful ideals educate the beauty-emotions. 
The highest beauties of many realities are assimilated 
into one ideal. (2) Efforts to realize our beauty-ideals 
cultivate our beauty-emotions. The beauty - emotions 
of the artist, the poet, the musician, and the teacher 
grow stronger and stronger. 

V. Means of educating the JSsthetic Emotions. — The 
worlds of beauty and sublimity and humor furnish abun- 
dant food for the aesthetic emotions. From the rich 
stores the teacher selects the fittest : 1. Physicol heau- 
ty — of form, of color, of motion, of sound, etc. 2. 
The fine arts — drawing, molding, painting, sculpture, 
architecture, landscape and flower gardening, etc. 3. 
Yocal culture — music, reading, elocution. 4. ^stheiio 
literature — poetry, fiction, assthetics, essays, rhetoric, 
composition. 5. Beauty of character — truthfulness, 
kindness, honesty, good morals, gentle manners, etc. 
6. World studies — astronomy, philosophy, religion, etc, 

YI. Methods of educating the Beauty-Emotions. — A 
mind develops normally when excited to right and many- 
sided activity. Beauty, sublimity, and humor occasion 
the activity of the aesthetic emotions. Cherishing these 
feelings and calling them into systematic and persistent 
activity educate these emotions. 



EDUCATION OF THE iESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 259 

Kindergarten Methods. — The intangible influences of 
beauty silently minister to soul-growth. 

1. Beautiful environments cultivate the heauty -emo- 
tions. The scenery, the flower-garden, the spreading 
meadows, the blossoming orchards, the golden fruit, the 
shady groves, the running brooks, and the songs of 
birds, awaken all beauty-emotions in the hearts of the 
little ones. Beautiful school-rooms and lovely school- 
grounds minister to Eesthetic culture. The kindergart- 
ner, like the wise mother, surrounds the little ones wdth 
an atmosphere of beauty. 

2. Kindergarten play-songs and all rhytliinlG move- 
Tnenis cultivate heauty-emotions. In fact, beauty is ob- 
trusive in all the kindergarten arrangements. Beauty 
of motion has a fascination for children which the kin- 
dergarten exercises gratify. 

3. MaJcing pretty things educates taste. The little 
ones are kept busy drawing, molding, cutting, build- 
ing, making. They try to make beautiful things. The 
beauty-emotions thus pass over into actions. 

4. Doing jt>r^^^«'Zy educates the heauty - emotions, 
^' Pretty is that pretty does." Kind acts are beautiful. 
Truthfulness is beautiful. Selfishness is ugly. Cruelty 
is ugly. All wrong doing is ugly. Beauty of charac- 
ter is the highest form of beauty. 

Primary and Intermediate Methods. — All the beauty- 
emotions are now moderately active, and should be cul- 
tivated as assiduously as the intellectual powers. Love 
of objective beauty is very active during this period. 

1. Maize the surroundings heautiful. Your school- 
room, like the home and kindergarten, should be a 
thing of beauty. A few pictures, a few flowers, will 



260 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

help much. Then, your school-grounds should be made 
as beautiful as a picture. Enlist pupils and patrons in 
this aesthetic work. 

2. Lead the pupils to the habit of heauty of position 
ojid move7nent. Graceful positions in sitting and stand- 
ing, graceful gestures, and beauty of movements in tac- 
tics, in walking, in gymnastics, in play, educate the 
beauty-emotions. 

3. Lead the pupil to produce heauty. Writing, 
drawing, and molding are excellent aesthetic exercises. 
Drawing has probably contributed most to the advance- 
ment of aesthetic culture. 

4. Vocal music and good reading educate the heauty- 
emotions. Yocal music should be made prominent in 
all our elementary schools. The reading should be as 
beautiful as the music and the drawing. 

5. Enlist the children in easy (Esthetic literature. 
Head to them easy poems and pretty stories. Have 
them commit and recite memory-gems and write pretty 
letters. Lead them to read beautiful literature. 

6. So manage that the heauty-emotions will hecome 
pretty-acts. Good conduct is beautiful, but bad con- 
duct is ugly. Good words and gentle manners are the 
highest forms of beauty. Generosity is beautiful, but 
stinginess is ugly. Gentleness is beautiful, but rude- 
ness is ugly. Truth is beautiful, but falsehood is ugly. 

High-School Methods. — During youth aesthetic emo- 
tions are intensely active. This is the golden period 
for their highest culture. 

1. So teach cesthetics, rhetoric, composition, and lit- 
erature as to educate the cesthetic emotions. The stu- 
dent learns to enjoy the beautiful in literature. The 



MISTAKES IN EDUCATING ^ESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 261 

plays of Shakespeare become as charming as the most 
beautiful music. The sublime epics, Paradise Lost, 
the Iliad, and Job, becoming as fascinating as galleries 
of art. The student begins to produce as well as to 
enjoy beautiful literature. 

2. The student must so study and practice the fine 
arts as to feast the cesthetic emotions. All can draw, 
most can sing, and some can read. Each one can excel 
in at least one aesthetic art. Art criticism is an excel- 
lent exercise. At a small cost each high school may se- 
cure photographs of the works of the masters. In the 
world of beauty the soul becomes refined and exalted. 

3. The student inust he led to luxuriate in the heau- 
ties of science, and language, and philosophy. Dry 
facts are respectable considerations, but the beauty of 
truth, of design, of system, of infinite wisdom_, that we 
discover at every step, exalts and ennobles us. 

4. Beauty of holiness is the supei'lative of heauty. 
Whole means j)hysically whole, healthy; holy means 

morally whole, healthy, sound. Physical beauty comes 
of physical health. So beauty of character comes of 
moral wholeness. God is beauty, for he is the Holy 
One. The holy men and women of olden and modern 
times are the beautiful characters that adorn human his- 
tory and exalt human nature. Our highest endeavors 
are, to become holy, and to realize in ourselves the 
beauty of holiness. The art of developing holy charac- 
ters is the finest of fine arts. Beauty of conduct is the 
climax. 

YIII. Mistakes in educating the iEsthetic Emotions. 
— Educators do not always realize the many-sidedness 
of soul-life, and the necessity for all-round culture. In- 



262 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tellect is often liigUy educated, to the neglect of heart- 
and will-culture. In connection with the sesthetic emo- 
tions many educational mistakes are made. 

1. Error of the utilitarian. " Thousands for utility, 
but not a dollar for ornament !" exclaimed \hQ jpractical 
man of the school board. " Teach my boy arithmetic, 
but do not waste his time with music, and drawing, and 
gymnastics," was the injunction of the dollar-wise parent. 
1^0 wonder that the old schoolmaster, thus instructed, 
tried to crush all the beauty-emotions out of children by 
mountains of facts. Modern education, with tlie motto 
" Utility and beauty," is rapidly remedying this funda- 
mental mistake. 

2. Error of the (Esthete. The aesthete considers aes- 
thetic culture the principal thing. Both the ethical and 
the practical are undervalued. Solid culture is re]3laced 
by the study of the fine arts. The old-time " Ladies' 
boardini? - school " embodied this ruinous error. Co- 
education has worked wonders in correcting these 
extremes, but very much remains to be achieved by the 
coming teacher. 

3. Error of the mathematician. Mountains of math- 
matics crush out the beauty-emotions. Sometimes it 
is grammar, and sometimes Latin. One's specialty is 
made to so absorb the time and energies of the pupil 
that no place is left for aesthetic culture. " I have no 
time to teach music and drawing," said a teacher who 
required the pupils to devote two hours daily to arith- 
metic. 

4. Error of the Philistine. A teacher w^ho lacks 
imagination and aesthetic culture trudges on mechan- 
ically, scarcely aware that there is a beauty-world. Un- 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 263 

der such teachers pupils grow up with Httle poetry to 
enrich their lives in God's world of beauty. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

HelpM Books. — Our literature is rich in works treating of the 
aesthetic emotions and their culture. Excellent manuals for rausic, 
and drawing, and elocution, and gentle manners, are numerous^ 
The teacher who loves the beautiful will work close to nature and 
art, and will lead her pupils into the paths of beauty, and sublimity, 
and humor. 

Letter. The culture of the aesthetic emotions is a delightful 
theme on which to write. Take time and write thoughtfully. Try 
to enlist your friend in this forward movement. 

1. Place of the (esthetic emotions in the menial economy. Point 
out the relations between intellect and esthetic emotions ; between 
these emotions and will. How does aesthetic culture affect manners % 
morals ? Are brutes endowed with these emotions f Define aesthetic 
emotion J aesthetic culture ; taste. 

2. Importance of cesihetic culture. Why do you rank assthetic 
culture with thought-culture ? Show how aesthetic culture refines ; 
exalts ; increases human happiness ; saves from degradation. Give 
three original reasons for aesthetic culture. 

3. Growth of the aesthetic emotions. Tell what you know about 
the activity of these emotions during the kindergarten period ; dur- 
ing the primary period ; during the intermediate period ; during the 
high-school period ; in manhood ; in old age. How early do the 
little ones manifest beauty-emotions ? What do you consider the 
golden period for aesthetic culture ? 

4. Laws of CBsthetic culture. Illustrate the law of effort; the 
law of means ; the law of method ; the law of creating beauty. Do 
ideas cause emotions ? Is self active in beauty-emotions ? 

5. Means for educating the o'Mhetic emotions. Place on the board 
your estimates of the educational value in assthetic culture of draw- 
ing ; of music ; of good reading ; of poetry, etc. 

6. Ilethods of educating the heauty-emotions. Give four direc- 
tions for kindergarten aesthetic culture ; four directions for primary 
culture ; four directions for intermediate culture ; four directions for 
high-school work. How do environments help or hinder? What 



264 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

literature do you count best ? May pupils be trained to write beau- 
tiful compositions ? 

7. Mistakes in educating the cesthetic emotions. Explain the 
error of the utilitarian; of the assthete; of the Philistine. What 
mistakes have you noticed in esthetic culture ? 



CHAPTER XXII. 

EDUCATION OF CONSCIENCE. 

By this is meant the development of the duty-emo- 
tions. " / ought " is the highest impulse of the soul. 
*' I can starve, but I can not steal." *' I can die, but I 
can not betray my country." " Burn me if you will, 
but I can not deny my Saviour." Such is the language 
of the educated conscience. Moral education is the 
education of conscience. 

I. Conscience in the Mental Economy. 

Conscience is to the moral universe what gravity is 
to the world of matter. Gravity regulates w^orlds, and 
conscience regulates moral beings. In all the arena of 
human thought no other theme has for us such thrilling 
interest as the education of conscience. 

I. Intellect and Conscience. — Self as intellect knows 
right, and self as conscience feels impulses to do right. 
Knowing duty occasions duty -impulses. Conscience is 
the moral impulsion in man. Conscience moves to right 
as invariably as the needle points to the pole. 

1. The duty-idea is intuitive. A moral being stands 
face to face with a moral universe. We gain the duty- 
idea by direct insight, just as we gain the cause-idea and 



COXSCIENCE IN THE MENTAL ECONOMY. 265 

the time-idea and the space-idea. Bound up in each 
rational act is the duty-idea. Self as necessary-intuition 
perceives the duty-idea in a moral act, as he perceives 
the cause-idea in a physical act. We gain intuitively 
the concrete ideas of right and wrong, of ought and 
ought not, of merit and demerit. These ideas are 
necessary, self-evident, universal. 

2. Self as intellect finds out the right. " I ought to 
tell the truth," is a moral judgment. All judgments 
are intellectual products, and differ merely as to subject- 
matter. Moral judgments are simply judgments con- 
cerning right and wrong. "We must find out what is 
right in the same ways in which we find out what is 
true in science. The space-idea is intuitive, but the 
truths of geometry are thought-products. The duty- 
idea is intuitive, but ethical truths are thought-products. 

3. Self as conscience feels imj^ulses to find out the 
right. We desire to know duty. " Find the right^"* 
is the first imperative of conscience. In the search for 
moral truth intellect is at its best. Be sure you are 
right. This is your highest intellectual duty. Arrive 
at your moral judgments with the utmost care. Mathe- 
matical judgments are important, but moral judgments 
are infinitely more important. 

II. Conscience and Law. — Conscience is the native 
energy of self that makes for righteousness. Righteous- 
ness is rightness, and, everywhere and always, right is 
accordance with law. Moral laws regulate the moral 
universe just as physical laws regulate the physical 
universe. Self as intellect finds out moral laws in the 
same ways that he finds out physical laws. Intellect 
finds out the laws of love : " Love God supremely," and 



266 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

" Love others as yon love yourself." Your impulse to 
obey these laws is an imperative of conscience. Self as 
intellect may be mistaken, but self as conscience infalli- 
bly feels the impulse to do what is believed to be right. 
Conscience is the law-obeying energy of the soul. 

III. Appetites and Conscience. — Duty-emotions dom- 
inate all other impulses. Conscience is the only im- 
perative of the soul. Duty-emotions are impulses to do 
right — to do what we think we ought to do. Con- 
science commands all our intellectual powers to find out 
duty ; commands will to choose and do what w^e believe 
we ought to do. The clamoring of the appetites and 
passions is hushed in the presence of the imperative of 
conscience. " It is my duty," silences all other consid- 
erations. "It is wrong," arrests every unlawful im- 
pulse. 

IV. Will and Conscience. — Choose and do the right, 
is the ultimate imperative of conscience. Conscien- 
tiousness is habitually doing what we deem right after 
the most searching investigation. You have used your 
intellect to the utmost to find out the law. You be- 
lieve it your duty to work for prohibition. ^N'ow your 
conscience moves you to do all you can to abolish the 
saloon. When you do this you act conscientiously. 
But to close your eyes at noonday and declare there is 
no sun, is not conscientiousness but rather willfulness. 
Paul persecuted conscientiously, but he calls himself 
the chief of sinners because he had refused to investi- 
gate. When we know we are right, we move boldly 
forward even in the face of danger and death. 

Y. Culture of Conscience. — Educating conscience is 
so developing our ethical emotions that our duty-im- 



CONSCIENCE, OK THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 267 

pulses become practically imperative. Between the man 
who habitually does what he intelligently believes to be 
righi^ and the jpollcy man, there is an immeasurable dis- 
tance. Each was endowed with duty-emotions, but the 
one has educated his conscience, while the other has 
repressed and dwarfed his moral impulses. Compare 
Paul with E'apoleon, or Luther with Richelieu. 

YI. Conscience, or the Ethical Emotions. — Our feel- 
ings occasioned by our duty-ideas are called ethical 
emotions, (^i^^y-emotions, emotions of conscience. Con- 
science is our cajyctbility to feel ethical emotions. Self, 
as intellect, gains ethical ideas ; self, as conscience, feels 
ethical emotions in view of ethical ideas ; self, as will, 
does ethical acts in view of ethical ideas and ethical 
emotions. Strictly, conscience is self feeling duty- 
emotions, but for convenience we use the term con 
science to represent ethical emotions, as well as the 
capability to feel these emotions. 

We do not think of conscience as an entity, nor of 
an act of conscience as an isolated act, Each ethical 
act is an act of the entire self. Self feels ethical emo- 
tions in view of ethical judgments, and, in view of these 
judgments and impulses, determines and acts. As the 
impulse to right is the dominant activity, we say that a 
moral act is an act of conscience. Self as conscience 
feels ethical emotions, and the native energy of self to 
feel rightness is termed conscience. In this sense con- 
science is a capability, a power, a faculty of self. Edu- 
cation develops but does not create conscience. Culture 
renders the moral impulses more and more powerful as 
incentives to conduct. However diverse their theories, 
most writers practically accord with these statements. 



268 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

II. Necessity ioe Moral Cultuee. 

Reason may be educated, but conscience must be 
cultivated. Without some moral culture a man becomes 
a monster. It is the education of conscience that fits 
us for the companionship of men and angels. Moral 
education is superlatively important. 

1. Conscience-culture leads to the grandest man- 
hood. The ultimate product of moral training is a 
human being, under the direction of an enlightened 
conscience, habitually striving to do his full duty to 
himself, his fellow-beings, and his God. This is the 
educational cKmax. A conscientious man is truly the 
noblest work of God. 

2. Conscience-culture gives self-control. It subjects 
the lawless appetites and passions to law. It makes 
one law-abiding. The Chief-Justice of England says, 
" Temperance, self-control as to the drink-habit, would 
close three fourths of all the prisons in the world." 
Self-indulgence makes demons, and fills our prisons, our 
brothels, and our gambling-hells. Conscience-culture 
gives self-control, and dethrones appetite and passion. 

3. Conscience-culture leads to the highest hajppiness. 
Happiness everywhere is a result of obedience to law, 
as misery is a result of violation of law. " Happy are the 
pure in heart." " Happy those who hunger and thirst 
after rigliteousness." 

4. Conscience-culture malces life worth living. It 
lifts up society, and makes our impulses pure and enno- 
bling. It makes men and God our friends, and gives 
us the universe to enjoy forever. " He who overcomes 
shall inherit all things." 



TIME TO EDUCATE CONSCIENCE. 269 

" There are men who do not know that when they 
tutor the magnetic needle they are tutoring currents that 
enswathe the globe and all worlds. There are men who 
do not know that when they tutor conscience they are 
tutoring magnetisms w^hich pervade both the universe 
of souls and its author. Beware how you put the finger 
of special pleading on the quivering needle of conscience, 
and forbid it to go north, south, east, or west ; beware 
of failing to balance it on a hair's point ; for whoever 
tutors that primordial, necessary, universal, infalUble 
emotion tutors a personal God " (Joseph Cook). 

III. Growth of Conscience. 

The brute has no respect for moral law, for it is des- 
titute of ethical insight as well as of ethical emotion. 
The child at a very early age feels duty-impulses, but 
these impulses are feeble, and fall far short of being 
practically imperative. The mass of mankind are eth- 
ical infants all their lives. Soon the little one sees 
dimly the law of obedience to parents, and feebly feels 
the duty-impulses to obey. This is the budding of con- 
science, and needs to be fostered with infinite care and 
tact. 

The duty-impulses become moderately strong during 
boyhood and girlhood, but need constant watchfulness 
to see that they become acts. Train the young to do 
habitually what they believe to be right, and conscience 
will grow strong. 

Conscience becomes highly active and commanding 
in youth. This is the golden period for its systematic 
culture. The youth loves and obeys law because it is 
right. 



270 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Conscience rightly educated grows more and more 
powerful to tlie end of life ; it becomes the imperative 
soul-energy. It makes a man mighty to conquer. One 
righteous man shall chase a thousand guilty ones, for — 

" Thus conscience does make cowards of us all." 

Good Conscience and Bad Conscience. — These are misleading expres- 
sions. Conscience is always good. When Paul persecuted Christians 
to the death, he said, " I did it in good conscience, for I thought I 
ought." He simply acted conscientiously. When we act conscien- 
tiously we say we have a good conscience, but when we act unconsci- 
entiously we say we have a had conscience. It is every way better 
to say we are good when we obey conscience, but we are bad when 
we disobey conscience Conscience always moves us to resist the 
wrong and choose and do the right, Conscience is always good. 
We are responsible not only for what we know, but also for what we 
ought to know. Those that have few opportunities shall be beaten 
with few stripes. 

lY. Laws of Conscience-Culture. 

Like memory and reason, conscience grows by use. 
Every time you gladly act conscientiously you increase 
the vigor of your ethical emotions. The laws of con- 
science-culture are as well defined as those of imagina- 
tion-growth. The duty-impulses constantly move us to 
find out and do the right. (1.) Oheying these impulses 
strengthens conscience, and disobeying them weakens 
conscience. (2.) Whatever tends to strengthen the ethical 
emotions may he made a means for cultivating con- 
science. (3.) Systematically and persistently seelcing 
to find out duty, and doing what we believe we ought 
to do, educates conscience. Ethical emotions carried 
over into acts become powerful. (4.) TIahitually doing 
what you helieve to he right educates conscience. As 



MEANS OF EDUCATING CONSCIENCE. 271 

reasoning makes one strong to reason, so feeling and 
doing duty make one ethically strong. (5.) Hahitu- 
ally doing what you believe to he wrong enfeebles con- 
science. The duty-impulses become too feeble to influ- 
ence action, and the transgressor ceases to ask, "Is it 
right?" 

Y. Means of Conscience-Culture. 

Well-directed effort in finding out moral law and doing what we 
believe right, educate conscience. A world of duties to learn and 
do is the limitless field from which to choose the means for con- 
science-culture. It seems almost needless to attempt to enumer- 
ate. 

1. The family is primary. Loving parents teach the laws and 
make it easy to obey. As the child learns to walk by walking, so it 
learns to do right by doing right. The family fosters all good im- 
pulses. 

2. Good companionship stands next to the family. The influence 
for weal or woe of associates is tremendous. When your associates 
love and live up to law, you find it easy to do right ; but when your 
associates are lawless you drift into lawless habits. 

3. Good literature ranks very high. " The Bible," says Huxley, 
"is incomparably the best means for moral culture." When we 
realize that the loving Father gives laws for our good, we find it 
easy to obey. W^hen we know that an approving conscience is the 
smile of God, we have the highest possible motive to do right. The 
New Testament is the one perfect ethical code, and the life of Jesus 
is the one perfect ethical model. The best ethical literature is of 
inestimable value. No one knows how much he is influenced by 
what he reads. Pure literature is of priceless value. On the other 
hand, vicious literature does incalculable harm in weakening all 
moral restraints. 

4. Congenial, occupation deserves special mention. Poor, weak 
human nature finds it hard to battle against temptations that come 
of idleness or uncongenial occupation. 

5. 21ie Sunday-school and church are poiverful means for con- 
science-culture. Here millions of the best men and women put forth 
their best efforts to get duty into the hearts and lives of the young. 



272 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Scientific ethics touches not the masses. Nothing can ever take the 
place of Christian ethics as the means of conscience-culture. 

6. 2'he school and college exert a powerful ethical influence. They 
give purpose and direction to youthful effort. They keep the young 
busy and interested. They give deeper insight into the tendencies 
and outcome of courses of action. In the absence of school-life the 
best youths may drift into evil habits. 

YI. Methods of educating Conscience. 

Conscience is self feeling duty-emotions. Its imperatives are, 
find duty, choose duty, do duty, rejoice over duty done, and grieve 
over duty not done. Methods of educating conscience are systematic 
and persistent plans of instruction and training that tend to make 
these imperatives effective. Conscience is the capability of self to 
feel duty-emotions. As used in life and literature, the term con- 
science is the synonym of ethical emotions and ethical acts. It is 
so used in this work. Self as conscience feels the impulse to inves- 
tigate in order to find out duty. Self as conscience feels the im- 
pulse to choose duty as understood. Self as conscience feels the 
imperative, " I ought to do what I believe to be right." Self as 
conscience feels a glow of satisfaction in view of duties done. Self 
as conscience feels remorse in view of law violated. Conscience is 
the moral faculty. It is the native energy of self to feel rightness. 
Moral education is the development of conscience. A man is edu- 
cated intellectually when he becomes capable of putting forth his 
best cognitive efforts. A man is educated morally when conscience 
dominates all other feelings and becomes the controlling imperative 
in the mental economy. Such a man earnestly strives to find out 
and do every duty to self, to others, and to God. He feels his high- 
est joy in loving and obeying law. A plan of life that systemati- 
cally and persistently calls ethical emotions into effective activity is 
a method of educating conscience. Ethical emotions do not count 
unless they terminate in ethical actions. Every time you resist a 
temptation or perform a duty you strengthen conscience. 

I. Kindergarten and Primary Methods of educating 
Conscience. — These are methods adaj^ted to the moral 
education of the little ones. Like the thinking powers, 



METHODS OF EDUCATING CONSCIENCE. 273 

tlie duty-impulses act feebly in childliood. The foster- 
ing care of parents and teachers is peculiarly needed to 
cherish the budding ethical emotions. Some one has 
shrewdly said, " Moral education should begin with the 
grandparents." 

1. Develop the duty-idea. Like the number-idea, 
the duty -idea is intuitive. As the child works up to 
number-ideas through concrete examples, so the little 
ones work up to duty-ideas through duty-experiences. 
Early duty-lessons must be easy, and as concrete as early 
language-lessons. The duty to obey parents is earliest 
developed. 

2. Make duty lovely. The loving parents are the 
first to lead the little ones to joyous obedience along the 
paths of love. The loving teacher leads the little ones 
in the same paths. The child is led to think of God as 
the loving Father and of heaven as a happy home. Thus 
duty becomes to a child joyous and lovely, and naughti- 
ness sad and hateful. 

3. Lead the little ones through object-lessons to law. 
The hourly occurrences are the best lessons. Little 
stories are excellent. Example is irresistible. As in 
arithmetic and music, the child moves up through prac- 
tice to law. 

4. Train the little ones to do what they think they 
ought to do. Only voluntary elfort educates. In some 
way the child must be led to choose and do right. It 
may not know why, but it is right because mother says 
so. Children as well as philosophers must take much 
on faith in those they trust. It is worth everything to 
train the little ones to the habit of riffht doinoj. 

5. The education of conscience is positive. It is 

18 



274: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

right to feel grateful and kindly. It is duty to tell the 
truth and obey parents and teachers. So thoroughly 
impress the positive virtues that the child will acquire 
the habit of making its duty-emotions ethical acts. 
Keep before the child its duties. The negatives should 
seldom be mentioned. In teaching penmanship the 
ideal form and not the blunders is kept constantly be- 
fore the pupil. In teaching morality we need to pursue 
a similar course. 

6. Throw around the little ones a moral atmos- 
phere. Suffer them not to be tempted above what they 
are able to bear. Make it easy for them to do right. 
When they go wrong, gently lead them back to the 
path of duty. Spare no vigilance in cherishing the 
duty-habit. 

II. Intermediate Methods of educating Conscience. — 
These are methods of moral culture adapted to boys 
and girls. In all lands, in nearly all communities, are 
to be found sturdy moral characters — men and women 
kind and true and good. How have these moral heroes 
developed golden characters ? Ask Mark Hopkins and 
Miss Willard ; ask Job and Elijah ; ask Jesus. Take 
the lessons you learn into your school-room and teach 
them to your pupils. 

1. Give practical lessons in morals. Lessons from 
life are most impressive. It is important that boys and 
girls should gain clear-cut moral notions. Duty must 
be made as clear as axioms. Hence these lessons must 
be specific. Generalizations do little good. 

2. Lead hoys and girls to resjpect and obey human 
laws. These become real object-lessons. Parental re- 
quests are laws of the family. Requests of teachers are 



CHARACTER-GROWING. 276 

laws of tlie school. Legislative acts are laws of tlie 
State. Congressional acts are laws of the nation. In- 
still reverence for law. Cherish the impulse, " I ought 
to obey the law." See to it that duty-impulses become 
acts. The pupil will thus grow into a law-loving and 
law-abiding citizen. 

3. Develop the habit of right doing. It is of the 
utmost importance that boys and girls should habitually 
do what they believe they ought to do. Thus conscience 
is efficiently educated, and a sturdy moral character is 
developed. I wish I could sufficiently emphasize this 
thought. We must not suffer pupils to fall into the 
habit of doing what they consider wrong, and thus 
weaken conscience and build bad characters. 

4. Foster a taste for cesthetic literature. As we 
keep poison out of food, so must we keep base literature 
away from the young. The best literature is aesthetic. 
We must manage to have the boys and girls read only 
the best. In our times this is no easy task. We must 
so educate our pupils that they will choose pure liter- 
ature as they choose wholesome food. 

Character-Growing. — Methods of conscience-culture learned in 
the school of experience help most. "From my own life's expe- 
rience I know the necessary ingredients of character and the im- 
portance of it, above all knowledge. 1 have learned, also, not to 
expect too much. I never yet made a stingy child generous from 
impulse, or an improvident child prudent at all times ; but the fact 
that both faults have been in a measure overcome encourages me to 
persevere. I work in every possible way for these essentials : Hon- 
esty in every detail ; contempt of mean little ways ; respect for each 
other's rights and mine ; habits of industry and order, application and 
perseverance — the sum total of all being self-control. The amount of 
knowledge they acquire gives me little concern. With the experience 
of so many years I am bound to teach them with a greater or less de- 



276 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

gree of excellence. Although teaching and I understand each other 
as a whole, each year develops some new trait that has to be studied 
and adapted. Whatever success I have had is due to the study of 
the individual, added to my natural aptitude. I have either no 
method or all methods. Whatever helps, I seize upon, keeping 
always in mind the development of power in the child. My idea 
of intellectual power is ability and desire to obtain knowledge 
with accuracy and rapidity and certainty, and to use it effectively. 
My idea of moral power is intellectual power with the supreme love 
of right and the ability to realize the ideal life in the actual life. I 
have always made character-growing my highest aim. By assimi- 
lating my best experiences and the experiences of the best moral 
educators, I have tried to form perfect character-ideals. I have 
always given my best endeavors to the work of leading my pupils to 
realize these ideals in their own characters." * 

III. Advanced Methods of educating Conscience. — 

These are methods of moral education adapted to youth 
and early manhood. They need to be thorough and 
powerful. 

1. Self-control from 2)Tinciple is cardinal. Youth 
is the period of mighty impulses that move the world. 
Xow is the time for danger-signals. The appetite 
for drink and other perverted appetites must not be 
permitted to sweep away the foundations of 'character. 
In youth all the feelings are intensely active. Shall 
we leave our youths to throw conscience and duty to 
the winds and sow their wild oats ? After a few gay 
and giddy years of lawless gratification of their appe- 
tites and passions, will they return to a life of duty and 
purity ? Survey yonder battle-field of the mad passions 
after the battle. Where, oh, where are the armies of 
the glorious youths you saw enter ? Alas ! alas ! most 

* These are the precious utterances of one who is evidently a great 
teacher, but whose name the author at present is unable to give. 



EDUCATION OF CONSCIENCE. 277 

of them have fallen to rise no more. Those stragglers 
you see are individuals called back to the path of duty 
by mother- love and the early education of conscience. 
The vast proportion of these prodigal sons and daugh- 
ters will never return to their father's house. There 
is absolutely no safety but in self-control. Early 
and always foster self-control from a conviction of 
duty. 

2. Conscience must dominate youthful action. Only 
thus can our youths be saved and a noble manhood in- 
sured. Conscience is now very active and its impulses 
imperative to youths who from infancy have been 
trained to the habits of right doing. By all possible 
means the dominion of conscience must be maintained 
through these years of hope and danger. 

3. Ethical studies must he made prominent. Eth- 
ics is the science of duty, and applied ethics is the art of 
right living. Youth is the time to gain large views of 
our relations and duties, l^ow each one needs to cre- 
ate an ideal character as a life model. Moral law, the 
beauty of goodness, perfection through right living, 
happiness as the consequence of lawful living, are les- 
sons that must be inwrought into the very fiber of the 
soul. Applied ethics, the art of right living, the great- 
est of all arts, is freighted with the well-being of the 
individual and the race. 

4. Ethical literature m^ust have the first place. Hux- 
ley tells us that the Bible is incomparably the best 
means of moral culture. God is our loving Father, and 
in the words of Herbert Spencer is, " the infinite and 
eternal energy from which all things proceed." * Jesus 

* Which not whom. Spencer'does not think of the absolute as the lov- 



278 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

is the Perfect One. The Bible is God's best gift to man, 
and is intended to guide him in the way of truth, duty, 
and everlasting life. The works of authors like Shake- 
speare and Dickens and MacDonald, are rich ethical 
treasures. Young people need to constantly drink at 
these pure fountains. 

5. Pure and wise associates are indispensahle. A 
generous and confiding youth is easily led by those he 
loves. Probably four out of five who go to the bad 
are misled by vicious associates. " Evil associates cor- 
rupt good morals." On the other hand, good and 
wise associates do most to educate conscience and lead 
their companions in paths of duty. 

6. Punishment is a moral necessity. Its purpose 
is to lead the wayward back to the path of duty and 
keep them in it. " The way of the transgressor is 
hard." All offenses call for punishment. When we 
violate hygienic laws we suffer. When the child vio- 
lates home laws it is punished. When we do wrong we 
suffer remorse and are punished by the disapproval of 
loved ones. The parent and the teacher and the State 
and God visit on the transgressor the suffering neces- 
sary to reformation. We punish in love, in order to get 
the transgressor right and keep him right. 

An approving conscience is the smile of God ; remorse His frown. 

YII. Mistakes in educating Conscience. 

A world full of degraded human beings is the re- 
sult of failures in moral education. The millions would 

ing Father, hut as the infinite and eternal energy. He holds that the abso- 
lute is not personal. 



MISTAKES IN EDUCATING CONSCIENCE. 279 

be better men and women but for the deplorable mis- 
takes in the most important field of human culture. A 
good man or woman is the noblest work of God, and a 
bad man or woman is the most deplorable work of 
man. 

1. Neglect of moral culture. The murderous plea, 
" I am not my brother's keeper," suffers the masses to 
drift in the ways of folly and sin. Then, parents and 
teachers and preachers and friends do not always with 
untiring purpose inculcate duty. 

2. Failure to remove sources of corruption. States 
wisely quarantine against deadly epidemics. Saloons, 
houses of infamy, gambling-dens, and " variety " the- 
atres corrupt our youth and breed moral pestilence. 
I^ot to suppress these sources of corruption is a griev- 
ous blunder. These immoral pest-houses should be 
closed to youth. 

3. Precept without training. Only doing right edu- 
cates conscience. l!^o amount of precept will save. The 
great mistake everywhere is the failure to carry pre- 
cept over into practice. Moral lectures and moral ser- 
mons are good, but they become effective only when 
they become ethical emotions and ethical acts. Planting 
the corn is well, but cultivation is better. In moral 
education, example and training must accompany and 
supplement precept. The golden moral chain is made 
up of right ideas, right examples, and right training. 

4. Failure to control our thoughts. It is true that 
the current of our thoughts deeply affects our conduct 
and character. It is equally true that this current is 
largely under our control. We can make the stream 
of thought clear and wholesome, as we can make it 



280 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

muddy and impure. When we think on the true, the 
honorable, the just, the pure, the lovely, the reputable, 
our ethical emotions become imperative. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

ETHICAL EMOTION-CULTURE. 

I. Helpful Books. — We are rich in choice works helpful in ethical 
culture. It seems unfit to mention two or three out of so many. 
Comegy's Primer of Ethics, Robinson's Principles and Practice of 
Ethics, Hopkins's Law of Love, Cook's Conscience, Rosenkranz's 
Philosophy of Education, Rowland's Practical Hints for Teachers. 
Dunton's Moral Education, and Everett's Ethics for Young People, 
are admirable works. Our literature abounds in good ethical works. 

II. Letter on Conscience-Culture. — Lead your friend to realize the 
nature of moral education. Go into details, and show just how you 
would promote the growth of conscience. Send a copy of your let- 
ter to some journal for publication. Such productions will prove 
valuable. What you find helpful may help others. 

IIL Conscience in the Mental Economy. — What do you mean by 
conscience ? Is conscience a cognitive or an emotional power ? Com- 
pare conscience and gravity. Show the relations of intellect and 
conscience. Prove that the duty-idea is intuitive. Show that moral 
judgments are products of intellect. Does conscience impel us to 
investigate in order to find out duty ? Show the relations of con- 
science and the appetites ; the self-emotions ; the will. Is conscience 
a moral guide ? In what sense is conscience infallible ? What do 
you mean by the education of conscience? by a weak conscience? 
by a strong conscience ? What distinction do you make between 
conscience and the ethical emotions I 

IV. Necessity for Moral Culture. — Why must conscience be edu- 
cated ? Prove that conscience-culture tends to a superior manhood. 
How does conscience-culture give self-control ? Prove that moral 
education leads to happiness. Is an immoral life worth living? 

V. Growth of Conscience. — Why has the brute no regard for 
moral law ? How early does the child gain the duty-idea and feel 
duty-emotions? Explain what you mean by a feeble conscience. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 281 

Do many persons remain ethical infants all their lives ? Trace the 
growth of conscience from infancy to manhood. Explain the mean- 
ing of the expressions good conscience and had conscience. Are these 
expressions misleading? 

VI. Laws of Conscience-Culture.— State in ethical terms the law 
of effort ; law of means ; law of methods ; law of habit. Prove that 
acting unconscientiously enfeebles conscience. Does conscience se- 
riously trouble great criminals? 

VII. Means of Conscience-Culture. — Give your reasons for put- 
ting the family first. What do you think of good companionship I 
of good literature ? of congenial occupation ? of the Sunday-school 
and church ? of the Bible ? What does Huxley say about the Bible ? 

VIII. Methods of educating Conscience. — What is conscience? 
How do we educate conscience ? How will you develop duty-ideas ? 
Why must duty-lessons for children be objective ? Why must duty 
be made lovely ? How will you train children to the habit of doing 
right? How are grand moral men and women made? Why should 
duty-lessons be practical ? How will you lead your pupils to respect 
and obey law? Why should right doing be rooted into habit ? How 
will you foster a taste for ethical literature? Show that self-control 
is better than kingdoms. Why should conscience dominate? Give 
your reasons for making ethical studies prominent. Do duty-ideas 
tend to duty-acts? What do you consider the primary office of 
punishments ? 

IX. Mistakes in the Education of Conscience. — Why is it that we 
have a world full of degraded human beings ? Do you think the 
moral education of the race is possible ? Why do we so neglect 
ethical culture I Prove that prohibition helps. Show that example 
and training are as necessary as precept. State your own experience 
in promoting character-growth. 



PART Y. 

EDUCATION OF THE WILL-POWERS, 



CHAPTER XXIII.— The Will-Powers. 

XXIV. — Education of Attention, or Self-Con- 
centration. 
XXV. — Education of Choice, or Self-Deter- 

mination 
XXVI. — Education of Executive Volition or 

Self-Action. 
XXVn. —Culture op the Will-Powers. 



Perception. 



The Intellect. ■{ Representation. 



The Will. 



^ Thought. 



The Feelings. . 



Sensations. 



Emotions. 



Attention. 



C Sense-perception. 

•< Self-perception. 

( Necessary-perception. 

( Memory. 

< Phantasy. 

( Imagination. 

( Conception. 

< Judgment. 
( Reason. 

( General sensations. 
l Special sensations. 

i Self-emotions. 
■N Social-emotions. 
( Cosmic-emotions. 

j Attracted. 
( Voluntary. 



Choice, or Self-determination. 



Action. 



r Reflex. 
J Instinctive. 
I Impulsive. 
(^Purposed. 



A mind is a unit. Its activities can not be separated by fixed 
lines. While the soul's various capabilities may be studied separately, 
they can not be thought of as acting separately. The fact of the 
interaction of our various powers is fundamental in educational as 
in mental science. Milton taught that " in the soul are many lesser 
faculties that serve reason as chief." But a faculty must not be 
thought of as an entity ; self is the entity, and his faculties are his 
capabilities to do acts different in kind. Nor must the faculties be 
thought of as acquired facilities ; education develops but does not 
create faculties. We must think of the faculties as the native ener- 
gies of self. Each self is endowed with native energies to know 
and feel and will. The capabilities of self to do acts distinct in kind 
are called his activities, his powers, his faculties. But no mental act is 
simple. Each act of self is an act of the entire self. The dominat- 
ing activity characterizes and denominates the act ; as, when reason 
is the dominant activity, we say the act is an act of self as reason. 



PAET FIFTH. 

TEE EDUCATION OF TEE WILL. 



CHAPTEE XXIIL 

THE WILL-POWERS. 

These are our effort-making capabilities. Self as 
intellect knows something ; self as emotion feels some- 
how ; and self as will makes some intentional effort. All 
mentality is knowing, feeling, and willing. Take away 
from our mental lives knowing and feeling, and the 
residue is willing. Will enters into each mental act.^ 
Analyze any of your acts : you find that attention con- ' 
ditions knowing ; that ideas occasion emotions ; that 
ideas and emotion occasion choices; and that choices 
occasion actions. Intention, purpose, liberty, character- 
ize will, but will is simply self willing, and may be de- 
fined as the native energy of self to make intentional 
effort. 

Will is not to be conceived as an activity in itself. As a concrete 
reality, will is active intelligence stimulated by emotion, or active 
emotion directed by intelligence. Will must have material to work 
upon — an object to be willed ; and such material can be obtained 
only from intelligence and emotion. All education, in a sense, is 
education of will. The education of intelligence is an exertion of 
will in directing intelligence to particular objects; the education 
of emotion is an exertion of will for the suppression of feelings that 



286 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

are inimical, and the stimulation of those that are favorable to the 
well-being of man.* 

Will is to be conceived of as a capability of a self to put forth in- 
tentional effort. Each one is aware that he purposely concentrates 
his efforts, prefers one thing to another, and intentionally executes 
his purposes. This is mind in liberty ; this is will. As we voluntarily 
attend, and choose, and act, will is to be thought of as standing for 
the powers of attention, choice, and action. 

I. The Will-Powers. — We usually think of will as 
our power of self-determination, because choice is pre- 
eminent in willing. But in order to know or feel or 
do, we must concentrate our efforts — must attend. In 
order that we may achieve, we must execute — must act. 
We thus see that self puts forth voluntary effort in 
three distinct ways : in attending, in choosing, and in 
acting. Practically, attention^ choice^ and action are 
now generally recognized as our will-powers. The 
educator thinks of the learner as a self who can attend, 




choose, and act, as well as know and feel. This insight 
is of great value. Will stands for attention^ choice^ and 
action. It ceases to be the vague, mysterious, meta- 
physical thing that has wrought such confusion. 

II. Attention is the Power of Self to focalize his 
Efforts. — It is " the self-governing intelhgence applying 
itseK to what it wills." 

" Attention is the actual self-direction of the mind to any object 
external or internal." " The activity of the soul which effects the 

* J. Clark Murray. 



THE WILL-POWERS. 287 

concentrating and focusing of its efforts is called attention." " At- 
tention is the concentration of the activities of the mind by the 
power of the will." " The greater or less energy in the operation of 
knowing is called attention." " The essential achievement of the 
will is to attend to a difficult object, and hold it fast before the 
mind." " Effort of attention is the essential phenomenon of will." 
'* In attention we find the first exhibition of will ; it is the beginning 
of all control over the mental life, and may be defined as the power 
to voluntarily concentrate mental effort." " Attention is an act of 
will, and may be defined as the power of concentrated voluntary 
effort." " Attention is the power of command over our thoughts, 
and thus over our feelings." " Attention is the power to concentrate 
effort, and fix the mind persistently on an object or group of objects* 
and to resolutely exclude from the mental view all irrelevant objects." 
Such, substantially, is the teaching of all psychologists. Attention 
is a will-power, just as perception is an intellectual power. 

1. Attention is voluntary concentration of effort, 
I purposely exclude other themes aud ^x my mind on 
this topic. I do this intentionally, as it is my wish 
to grasp the wonderful truth that " self attends volun- 
tarily.''^ We speak of attracted attention, and some- 
times call this nonvoluntary attention or reflex atten- 
tion. Thus, an unexpected sound or touch or sight 
attracts our attention. Insistent ideas also attract our 
attention, and are sometimes hard to banish. Persons 
with little will-power drift, having their attention drawn 
hither and thither. But attention proper is always 
voluntary. Many things may conspire to divert my 
attention, but I resolutely exclude them, and keep my 
mind fixed on the subject in hand. Wlien we think 
and speak of attention we mean voluntary attention. 
Culture converts the attracted attention of the child 
into the purposed attention of the youth. Education 
makes attention completely voluntary. 



288 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

2. Attention enables tis to master difficulties in 
detail. " Attention is an act of will. The mind is 
directed to certain objects before it. When these are 
numerous, they appear dim and indefinite ; but when 
we give attention to any one object, it stands out dis- 
tinctly from the others." * As w^e become acquainted 
with many persons, one by one, so we master, step by 
step, the most complex subjects by concentrating our 
powers on each step in succession. 

3. Attention is our cajoaeity to prolong and change 
effort. You keep the problem before you until mas- 
tered. You keep your mind on the lesson until it is 
learned. You then rest and turn to another lesson. 
At will we concentrate, prolong, and change the direc- 
tion of our efforts. 

The Potencies of Attention. — The psychologist sometimes amuses 
himself by defining each of the mental powers in terms of conscious- 
ness. An equally valuable exercise is the defining of each capability 
of self in terms of attention. Such exercises effectually dissipate the 
error of supposing that the so-called faculties are isolated properties 
of which the mind is composed. The young psychologist will need 
to guard against going to the opposite extreme, in supposing that each 
activity of self is merely a phase of consciousness and a potency of 
attention. A deeper insight into the mental economy reveals to 
you a self endowed with energies, different in kind. Awareness is 
one of these energies, and attention is another. You attend, that 
you may remember, and you are aware, that you attend and remem- 
ber ; but memory is not attention, nor is it awareness. 

III. Choice is the Native Energy of Self-Determination. 

— Choice is the pre-eminent will-power, and is usually 
thought of as a synonym of will. '^ Choice is the ca- 
pability of free election in view of cognitions and emo- 

* Dr. McCosh. 



SELF IS FREE TO CHOOSE. 289 

tions." " Without intellect there is no light / without 
feeling there is no motive y without motive there is no 
choice.'''' " Choice is the power of rational self-deter- 
mination in consideration of motives." " When two 
courses are open to us, choice is our power to decide 
to take one rather than the other." " Choice is simj)ly 
the self-determining power of the soul." " Choice is 
mind in liberty, and is the power of preference." 
'^ Choice is the determining power in human action. 
When but one course is open, self adopts it. When 
several courses are open, self as choice determines in 
favor of one." " Choice is the capability to decide 
what action -to take." " Clioice is the power to elect 
one of two or more alternatives in view of motives ra- 
tionally apprehended." " Choice is the ability to make 
up one's mind in the presence of rival claims." Thus 
speak the great psychologists. 

1. Self is free to choose. Ideas occasion emotions, 
and ideas and emotions occasion choices. Self-activity 
characterizes mind. Mental acts are occasioned but 
not caused. The idea of personal liberty is an intuitive 
idea. That we are free to choose is clearly a necessary 
truth. On this truth rests the science of duty. Per- 
sons are praised and blamed, rewarded and punished, 
because they are free and hence responsible. All men 
know that they can choose as they please. [N'o one ever 
thinks of choice as necessitated except when constrained 
so to do by metaphysical dogmas. A being not en- 
dowed with liberty of choice is not a person. 

2. Motives occasion choices. Incentives to choice 
are termed motives. These include reasons for choice, 
and are the ideas and emotions which move us to de- 

19 



290 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

termine. "What was your motive ? "We often ask our- 
selves as well as others this question. What induced 
you to pursue that course ? Even the least cultured ask 
this question. Rational choice is deliberative self-de- 
termination. Motives are inducements to choose. 

3. Ideas, desires, choices. Ideas are fundamental. 
We must know before we can desire. Yfe keep a 
thought before our minds until it awakens a desire and 
th.us induces a determination. Often ideas fight and 
emotions conflict. The idea of happiness through the 
lawless gratification of the a23petites fights with the idea 
of hap]3iness through obedience to law. The desire for 
sensual pleasure conflicts with the ethical desires. The 
house of mirth allures, while the house of mourning 
appeals to our noblest emotions. Self as choice termi- 
nates these fearful battles by determining to do right. 
Ideas occasion emotions, and emotions as active desires 
move us to choose. We resist unw^orthy desires, and 
determine in favor of ennobling desires. 

Self Determines. — I determine for myself. As I am rational, I de- 
liberate before deciding. For good reasons I adopt this plan and 
reject that. I am autocrat : in view of 'these conflicting ideas and 
emotions I determine. I am free. : lam conscious that I can stay 
or go. I am master : motives are mere considerations that 1 make 
strong or weak at will. I am responsible : I myself, uncompelled, 
chose to act thus ; I know I could have chosen differently. I am a 
person : I am a self-acting, self-conscious, self-determining being. I 
am immortal: I am in touch with the Infinite Will. 

lY . Action is the Native Energy of Self to execute his 
Determinations. — Volition, executive j>ower, executive 
volition, action — these are the terms used to designate 
our powder to carry choices over into acts. Eational 



ACTION IS THE NATIVE ENERGY OF SELF. 291 

action is the capability to purposely execute determi- 
nations. " Volition is born of choice, and is the power 
to carry out our choices." " Volition is will in action, 
and is the consummation of self-determination." " Ac- 
tion is the mental execution which follows resolution." 
" Executive volition is the ability to carry choices over 
into acts." "Volition is our power to command all 
our capabilities to unite in the execution of our pur- 
poses." " Volition is the overt act of will." "Action is 
the power to exert force in the line of rational choices." 
Action is the capability to do what we determine to do. 
Action is self executing his choices. 

Reflex-Acts, Impulsive-Acts, Rational-Acts. — In the aniraal econo- 
my movements which immediately follow feelings, and where there is 
no rational choice, are termed automatic, reflex, instinctive, impul- 
sive. Such acts are unpurposed and non-voluntary. Infinite Wis- 
dom has so planned that more than nine tenths of our acts are of 
this kind. Habitual acts tend to become automatic. These unpur- 
posed acts require comparatively little expenditures of energy. We 
are thus enabled to direct almost our entire energies to purposed 
and directed effort. 

A Rational Act is the Intentional Execution of a Rational Choice. — 
You have before you several interesting books which you desire to 
read. In what order will you read them ? After careful considera- 
tion, you determine to read this book first ; this, second ; and so on. 
You now proceed to execute your purpose by reading the books in the 
order you determined on. Action, in its strict sense, is the capabil- 
ity to execute purposes. Thus, Napoleon was a man of action, and 
Bismarck a man of great executive power. 

1. Self reaches the outer world through his physical 
organism. Sensation and movement are the connect- 
ing links between self and the not-self. It is impossible 
for us to manifest any thought, feeling, or purpose ex- 
cept by bodily movements. The look, the gesture, the 



292 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

spoken or written word, come of bodily movements. 
Self as action commands all his mental and physical 
abilities in the execution of his pm*poses. The reflex 
organism — marvelous mechanism ! — is the ready servant 
of the will. You determine to write a letter, and in the 
execution of your purpose you grasp the pen and write. 
Ganglia and nerves and muscles respond to your slight- 
est volitions and automatically carry on the work. 
How ? IS'o one knows. Self as will originates move- 
ments in the motor ganglia ; these movements induce 
molecular waves, which vibrate through the motor 
nerves to the muscles. The muscles contract and relax, 
and thus produce the necessary movements. A mind is 
self-acting, but how does it create motion ? How does 
the singer call into play the right muscles in the neces- 
sary degree of tension to produce the song ? How do 
you converse? We here touch the unknown. Is it 
also the unknowable ? 

2. Repetition converts purposed action into habits. 
From infancy you have been trained to pronounce cor- 
rectly and speak properly and act politely ; now you do 
these from habit, without thought and without pur- 
pose. Wonderful! Wonderful! Habit is the great 
conservator of mental energy. 

3. Executive power is the capability to bring about 
results. Alexander was a man of wonderful executive 
power, but Aristotle excelled him. The one changed the 
map, the other the thought, of the world. Executive 
power is the ability to achieve. It is the ability to or- 
ganize and direct. You will demonstrate your execu- 
tive ability by making the most of yourself and doing 
most for others. 



EDUCATION OF ATTENTION. 293 

CHAPTER XXiy. 

EDUCATION OF ATTENTION.* 

By this is meant tlie development of our power to 
devote ourselves wholly to one subject. The fact that 
we can become able to do this is fundamental in educa- 
tion. Rosenkranz counts this conception of attention 
the most important principle in pedagogy. Great 
achievements are possible to one who can concentrate 
all his energies upon his wisely chosen field of work. 

I. Relations of Attention to other Activities. — Will is 
voluntary and purposed effort. There are clearly three 
movements in acts of will : (1) Self selects a special 
field and devotes himself to it : this is will as attention. 
(2) Self, in view of various considerations, determines : 
this is will as choice. (3) Self executes his determina- 
tions : this is will as action. Attention in some form 
and in some degree enters into each mental act. 

1. Attention as related to choice and action. We 
can study these powers separately, but we know that 
self attends w^hile he determines and acts. Each of 
these activities supplements the others, but the act of 
concentrating your mind on one thing is essentially an 
act of attention. 

2. Attentioii as related to intellect. Self as atten- 
tion concentrates his cognitive energies and thus gains 
mastery. Effective thought is in the ratio of attention. 
Compare an act of reverie with an act of investigation. 
We attend, that we may know. 

3. Attention as related to emotion. We attend to 

* See chapter on Attention, in Elementary Psychology. 



294 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

things that interest us, and attention intensifies our 
emotions. Joy and hope grow brightest when we 
direct our attention to them, and anger quickly dies 
when we turn our attention to charity. 

Attention and Consciousness. — Self is ever doing acts of know- 
ing, feeling, willing, and is ever aware of doing these acts. This con- 
stant conscious activity is thought of as a mental stream, and is some- 
times represented as a river. The central current represents the field 
of clear consciousness; the sluggish stream on either side represents 
the field of obscure consciousness ; the eddies and pools and sprays, 
along the shore, represent the field of sub-consciousness; and the 
land from which flow innumerable brooklets represents the field of 
tmconsciousness. Could the river contract and deepen its current at 
will, and constantly change its direction to suit itself, it would admi- 
rably represent the self-acting mind. Self purposely selects his field 
of effort, and concentrates his energies upon it : this is the central 
current, the field of clear consciousness. Self attends indifferently 
to things bordering the field of clear consciousness : this is the field 
of obscure consciousness, represented by the sluggish waters on either 
side of the current. But it is not well to carry the figure too far. 
It is certain that we are conscious in the degree that we attend. 

II. Terms defined. — 'No psychological term is in more 
common use than attention. Its meaning is clear even 
to the child. 

1. Attention is the power of self-concentration. As 
attention, self selects one special field and refuses to be 
diverted from it. We turn away from everything else, and 
concentrate our entire energies on the subject selected. 

2. Attracted or non-voluntary attention is the spon- 
taneous attention given to whatever surprises or attracts 
us. The child turns without purpose from object to 
object. 

3. Yoluntary attention is determined self-concen- 
tration. This is attention proper. You intentionally 



IMPORTANCE OF ATTENTION-CULTURE. 295 

devote yourself to the preparation of the history lesson. 
You purposely fix your mind on the geometry lesson. 
You voluntarily bring to bear all your powers on the 
lesson in psychology. Voluntary attention is purposed 
concentration. 

4. Yersatility is the ahility to change. Napoleon 
gave himself wholly to the business in hand ; when this 
was finished, he turned instantly to the next business. 
Thus, he tells us, he was able to dispose daily of a pro- 
digious amount of work. Self as attention changes the 
direction of his efforts. 

5. Education of attention is the development of the 
power to purposely focalize effort. When a child, you 
could give slight attention only for moments ; now you 
can give complete attention for hours. This wonder- 
ful growth comes of well-directed effort, and is called 
education or culture. You have developed your power 
of attention. 

III. Importance of Attention-Culture. — We are en- 
dowed with the capability to select our field of w^ork 
and with the power to concentrate our energies on one 
point at a time ; we are able to master difficulties in de- 
tail. The capabiKty to attend is the exponent of mental 
efficiency. As we develop our power of attention, we 
increase in geometrical ratio our mental efficiency. 
The culture of attention is pre-eminently important, 
because — 

1. Mental growth depends on attention. Dreaming 
does not educate, Drifting does not develop power. 
The dawdling student remains a weakling. As my arm 
grows stronger and more skillful when I use it vigor- 
ously, so my reason becomes more and more powerful 



296 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

when I persistently give my best efforts to investiga- 
tion. 

2. Complete attention gives to each capability its 
maxirmiin of power. It makes perception complete, 
memory almost infallible, and thought penetrating. 
Take two persons having equal natural abilities : the 
one who can give complete attention accomplishes many 
times as much as the one who can only give partial at- 
tention. 

3. Complete attention illuminates. The lens con- 
centrates the sun's rays. The focal point becomes the 
center of light and heat. Attention focalizes thought 
and emotion, and the mental focal point becomes 
the center of mental light and interest. Everything 
in the focal point stands out with sunlight clear- 
ness. 

4. Culture develops attention into a habit. The 
child attends feebly and but for moments. You lead it 
to repeat the effort day by day. Soon it develops the 
power to attend more closely and for longer periods. 
But, what is more important, it acquires the studious 
habit. As the years advance the learner habitually de- 
votes himself completely to the matter in hand. This 
habit distinguishes students from dreamers, and efficient 
men and women from triflers. 

5. Teaching is the art of educating attention. " If 
the teacher's art is to be summed up briefly, it may be 
described as the art of developing the power of fixing 
the attention." * Were the object of school the develop- 
ment of the habit of inattention, some teachers would 
be a remarkable success. Yisit our schools, our lecture 

' *N. C. Rooper. 



LAWS OF ATTENTION-GROWTH. 297 

halls, our churclies : you find one man in a hundred 
who can give his entire attention for an hour. Fellow- 
teachers, are we to blame? "What can we do for the 
ninety-and-nine ? 

IV. Growth of Attention.— The educators who have led all forward 
educational movements lived for years in the closest relations with 
children. Teachers, you have studied, day by day, the living, play- 
ing, loving, learning child. What great practical lesson have you 
learned? You have closely observed the budding and growth of 
each of the intellectual powers. You have watched with profound 
interest the growth of the helpful emotions. Now you will make a 
special study of the child as will. You find that bright objects and 
musical sounds attract the attentmi of the infant. This is the be- 
ginning of will-activity. Preyer tells us that his boy gazed atten- 
tively at his image in the glass when but sixteen weeks old. You 
find that the little three-year-old in the kindergarten can attend 
feebly but for moments ; therefore you try to make the kindergarten 
work as attractive and almost as varied as the plays of children. At 
sis you find that the child can give moderate attention for a brief 
period, and hence can begin to study. You find it necessary to con- 
tinue to attract attention through the primary years : but you notice 
that attention becomes more and more voluntary. The child begins 
to attend intentionally, and also begins to resist distractions. You 
observe that your intermediate pupils can give much closer atten- 
tion and for a longer time. Voluntary attention is now quite active, 
and the pupils can really study. You find that the youth who has 
been properly educated can give almost complete attention for a 
long period. Hence it is that the high-school student is capable of 
great things ; but the college student is capable of deeper and more, 
prolonged attention, and hence of greater things. Finally, you ob- 
serve that the men and women who excel in every field of high 
achievement are the ones capable of intense and prolonged attention. 
Thus you have discovered for yourself the growth of the power to 
concentrate effort. You are now prepared to study the laws of this 
growth. 

Y. Laws of Attention-Growth. — The child is led but 
the man is a leader. Effort made lawfully develops 



298 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

the vacillating child into the man of iron will. You 
study to express the great educational laws in terms of 
attention. 

1. Law of effort — Eacli act of determined attention 
increases the power to attend. Attention is highly de- 
veloped when one can concentrate all his energies for 
the achievement of an end. 

2. Law of means — Studies which demand close 
and continued attention are hest for developing the 
power of self concentration. In the study of mathe- 
matics the learner must attend in order to make any 
advancement. This is true of all studies, but beginners 
realize this fact most in the study of arithmetic. 

3. Law of method — Plans of work that secure 
mgorous^ systematic^ and persistent concentration of 
effort educate attention. Not much more can be said. 
You so manage that your pupils habitually do their best, 
and thus develop greater and greater power of atten- 
tion. 

Some of the most helpful lessons in teaching may be 
condensed as special laws of attention-growth. 

4. Attention through interest. Interest is funda- 
mental in the mental economy. Children and adults 
attend to the things which interest them. The teacher 
creates interest and thus attracts and strengthens atten- 
tion. You find it hard to give attention to what does 
not interest you. How then can you expect children 
to do this % Glad attention educates. 

2. Concentrated effort must stop short of exhaus- 
tion. Intense attention is the most exhausting of all 
mental activity. The little ones can attend but for mo- 
ments. In the primary grades lessons must be brief, 



METHODS OF EDUCATING ATTENTION. 299 

and exercises demanding close attention be followed by 
play or restful work. As the years go by, the pupils 
become capable of greater and more prolonged atten- 
tion, but at all ages this law must be heeded. 

3. Attention can he kej^t fixed only as it is kept 
moving. Storm-centers, in the mental as in the physical 
world, are never stationary. You keep your mind on 
the subject because you pass from point to point. You 
hold the attention of your pupils because you lead them 
on step by step. Stationary attention is impossible. 

4. Attention through deter inination. You deter- 
mine to master a difficult theorem in geometry. To 
this end you concentrate your energies upon the theo- 
rem. You determinedly resist distracting influences. 
When you find yourself relaxing or wandering, you 
bend your energies anew to the task. You will not re- 
lax your efforts until the victory is won. This is atten- 
tion at its best. 

VI. Means for educating Attention.— Kindergarten work is won- 
derfully attractive and marvelously varied, and so is well calculated 
to strengthen the child's attention. Arithmetic is counted an excel- 
lent means for attention-culture during the primary and intermediate 
periods. During the high-school period, algebra and geometry are 
considered the very best means for developing attention. Botany 
and zoology deserve to rank high as a means of attention-culture. 
Much more, however, depends on methods than on subjects. Each 
study may become of high value as a means of educating attention. 

YII. Methods of educating Attention. — These are 
plans of study and teaching that call attention into vig- 
orous, systematic, and persistent activity, so as to develop 
the feeble attention of the child into the profound at- 
tention of the man. Attracted attention is converted 
into voluntary attention. Voluntary attention is so 



300 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

exercised as to become more and more powerful. Now, 
we attract the attention of the little ones. Later, we 
so interest the children that they give purposed at- 
tention for a little time. Year by year we lead our 
pupils to give closer and closer attention for longer 
and longer periods. Thus we so educate our pupils that 
they become capable of concentrated thought. Atten- 
tion becomes a habit, and gives thoughtfulness and steadi- 
ness to purpose. Our methods are our ways of achiev- 
ing these results. 

YIII. Kindergarten and Primary Methods of educat- 
ing Attention. — The child is very largely a thing of 
sense and impulse and action. Its ideas are sense- 
ideas. Its impulses pass over directly into acts. As 
the bee flits from flower to flower, so the child hastens 
from object to object. The wise teacher sees the child 
as it is, and so adapts the work as to develop its feeble 
powers. 

1. Attract attention. To do this will often tax your 
utmost ingenuity. What ideas has the pupil gained? 
In what things does the child feel an interest? You 
begin with these. The little girl loves flowers, but gives 
no heed to numbers. Ask her to bring you ten flowers. 
You must manage to connect the number-lesson with 
these flowers. The little boy seems stolid when you try 
to teach him arithmetic, but you find that he takes a 
lively interest in animals. You now give problems 
about animals, and the stupid boy becomes interested 
and attentive. Kindergarten work is admirably planned 
to gain the attention of the children, and to develop 
attracted into purposed attention. Similar work, to a 
less extent, is greatly needed in most primary schools. 



CREATE AND SUSTAIN INTEREST. 301 

2. Lead the child to do as well as hnow. You man- 
age to have the child try the orange by each sense, and 
to mold a clay orange, and to draw a picture of the 
orange, and to make a little composition about the 
orange. You thus lead the child to fix and hold its 
attention upon an object. In these ways you convert 
attracted attention into voluntary attention. Kinder- 
garten and primary work must very largely consist in 
doing. 

3. Sustain attention hy constant movement. The 
orator holds the rapt attention of his audience by pre- 
senting, in succession, different phases of his subject. 
Successful writers understand and act on this principle. 
Study the lessons given by the Great Teacher ; how 
perfectly he embodies the law that attention can he Icept 
fixed only as it is lcej>t moving ! 

4. Create and sustain interest. The story, the ob- 
ject, the doing, interest the children when intimately 
connected with their experiences. Attention through 
interest is the great law. Even the most cultured find 
it difficult to hold the attention upon a subject devoid 
of interest. How, then, can you hope to keep the 
attention of the children when your lessons are to them 
dry and irksome ? It is giving interested attention that 
strengthens the power to concentrate effort. 

5. Malce it easy to attend. Look to the physical 
comfort of your pupils. As far as possible, remove 
disturbing influences. Take the children when they 
are fresh. Make the exercises sparkling, lively, short. 
The earnest attention you thus secure will repay you^ 
and will prove invaluable to the children. 

6. Give yourself wholly to the lesson. So order 



302 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

your school that the pupils will govern themselves. 
Study the lesson from the standpoint of the learner. 
Throw into the lesson your enthusiasm. Enter into 
the very spirit of the children. Give the exercises 
your undivided attention. You will in this way se- 
cure the complete attention of your pupils. One 
such lesson is worth more than a score of the dawdling 
kind. 

IX. Intermediate Methods of educating Attention. — 
Attention is now largely voluntary. The pupil inten- 
tionally attends in order to accomplish some purposed 
end. The heart throbs with higher and wider interests. 
Thought and conscience and choice begin to count for 
much in the mental life. Work now gradually takes the 
place of the play-lessons of childhood. The girls and 
boys learn to really study. Attention and its cultures 
mean much more now than in childhood. How can we 
best promote the growth of attention during the inter- 
mediate period ? 

1. Secure the most favorable conditions. Vigorous 
health and physical comfort are of first importance. 
Light, temperature, seats, exercise, clothing, food, sleep, 
greatly affect the capability to attend. Quiet and the 
absence of everything calculated to distract attention 
must be secured. You retire to your quiet and com- 
fortable studio to do your thinking. Then give your 
pupils, as far as you can, the same advantages. You 
thus make it easy to attend. 

2. Create great interest. At no other period is this 
so essential. Boys and girls are intensely alive to their 
environments and to their personal interests. You must 
make the school-work more interesting than all other 



HIGH-SCHOOL METHODS OF EDUCATING ATTENTION. 303 

things. Whatever else you do or fail to do, you must 
create and sustain interest, and thus secure attention. 
Now is the time to awaken permanent interests by 
cherishing the enobling desires. 

3. Cultivate right habits of study. Train your 
pupils to try to keep their minds wholly on the lesson. 
They must learn to refuse to turn aside. If the atten- 
tion wanders for a moment, they must determinedly 
bring it back. The greatest thing you can do for your 
pupils at this period is to develop in them right habits 
of study. The essential feature of all effective study is 
complete devotion to the subject. 

4. Lead your pupils to victory after victory. Lead 
them to run down a truth with as great an interest as 
they run down a rabbit or a fox. So manage that each 
one solves the problem and finds out the classification. 
These victories intensify attention, and change the listless 
pupil into a real student. 

5. Enlist your pupils in worthy endeavors. Boys 
and girls without high purposes are apt to be wayward 
and listless. During this period pupils are liable to 
squander their time and their energies. A worthy pur- 
pose, as the purpose to graduate, will often work won- 
ders, converting the careless girl and the wayward boy 
into attentive students. 

X. High-School Methods of educating Attention. — 
Youths ought to be capable of concentrated and pro- 
longed effort. The students in the high-school must be 
able to give determined attention. The youth who can 
bend all his energies to his studies can accomplish some- 
thing ; but the youth who can not or will not do this 
will prove a failure. Above all, the high-school should 



304: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

develop the powers of attention and investigation. Ex- 
amine the students in a hundred high-schools. You 
discover that less than half of these give earnest atten- 
tion to the work, either during recitation or study 
hours. You find a still smaller proportion capable of 
indej)endent investigation. Surely better results may 
be secured by better high-school methods. 

1. Ediicate attention hy cherishing the spirit of 
mastei'y. Less ground must be covered. The hest 
must be selected. Each pupil is to be inspired with the 
spirit of mastery and persistently trained in the methods 
of mastery. The recitation hour is one of united and 
determined effort to master the topic. The teacher 
leads, and the pupils do their best. Each one is deeply 
interested, and all give the utmost attention. The plan 
of work wisely leads to mastery, and prepares the way 
for future and greater victories. 

2. Educate attention hy fostering wider interests. 
Cherish the longings of youth to explore the world 
without and the world within. Lead your pupils into 
the enchanting fields of literature and art. Enlist them 
in work for human good. In a world so grand, in the 
midst of these boundless interests, with so much to en- 
joy and so much to do, appetite and passion seem insig- 
nificant. Mighty resolves now become plans of action. 
That they may achieve, students now habitually resist 
distractions and allurements, and focalize their energies 
on their studies. 

3. Educate attention hy holding it in class-worTc. 
Good teaching secures and holds attention. The eye 
must not wander nor the attention flag. Three cent- 
uries have scarcely improved the plan given by Co- 



RULES FOR GAINING AND KEEPING ATTENTION. 305 

menius — the greatest educator of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. He formulated the following : 

Rules for gaining and keeping Attention. — The substance only is 
given. 

1. Bring before the class things interesting and profitable. This 
is golden, and may well guide the teacher. 

3. So present the subject as to awaken and sustain interest. You 
will thus secure and keep the attention. 

3. Suffer not the eye to wander. You can hold attention so 
long as you can keep each eye fixed on yourself or on the object 
studied. 

4. Represent everything to the senses. Place something on the 
blackboard. Use objects when you can. In some way appeal to the 
senses. 

5. Ask appropriate quest io?is. This is indispensable. All attend 
when any one may be called on at any moment. 

6. Hold each member of the class respo7isible, Call on them pro- 
miscuously. When one fails to answer satisfactorily, call on another 
without repeating the question. 

7. Train the members of the class to ask questions. They are in- 
terested'and will naturally seek deeper insight. 

4. Rules for aitention-cidture.^ The capability of 
self to concentrate his efforts is strengthened by acts of 
attention. How to get and keep attention is the con- 
stant study of the teacher. How to develop the power 
and habit of attention is the ever-present thought of 
the educator. The following brief rules may assist by 
way of suggestion : 

1. Secure attention through interest. You must know your pupils. 
Child-nature must be to you an open book. You must know the 
subject. The subject must in every way be adapted to the learner. 

2. Favor attention by good management. Secure the most favor- 

* Symposium. — Have the rules written on the blackboard. Arrange for 
a short essay on each rule. Discuss. Eoimd tables and symposiums are 
valuable educational expedients. 
20 



306 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

able conditions for study. Physical vigor is highly important. 
Freedom from interruptions and from distracting influences is 
necessary. 

3. Wm attention hy good elocution. The orator never needs to 
ask attention — he wins it. So it should be with the teacher. 

4. Hold attention hy keeping it moving. The focal point of at- 
tention is the storm-center of mental energy. Storm-centers are 
never stationary. The theatre and the circus hold the attention by 
movement, as do the historian and the novelist and the teacher. 

5. Stimulate attention hy success. You lead your pupils to so 
attend and work as to gain victory after victory. Nothing stim- 
ulates effort like success. 

6. Inspire attention hy pointing the way to achievement. The 
pupils who lead their classes are the ones who give the best atten- 
tion. The men and women who lead in every field of human achieve- 
ment are those who most completely concentrate their efforts. 
Newton assures us that he excelled because he gave his attention ex- 
clusively to the topic he was studying. Dickens tells us that he 
owed his success to patient, toiling attention. Napoleon ascribed 
much of his superiority to the habit of attending wholly to one thing 
at a time. Attention is the royal road to achievement. 

XI. Mistakes in educating Attention. — Attention is 
i/ntentional concentration of effort. The attentive pnpil 
voluntarily devotes himself to the lesson, and purposely 
excludes everything else. Attention through interest 
and interest through determination is the great law of 
teaching. Violations of this law are educational mis- 
takes. 

1. Compulsory attention does not educate. All at- 
tempts to force attention are blunders. "Mind your 
books, or you will catch it ! " was the panacea of the old 
schoolmaster. " Get your lessons, or I will grade you 
down," is the one expedient of the half-way-teacher. 
Fear of the consequences of neglect may spur the pupil 
to voluntarily give some attention, but this is a low 



A DIVIDED TEACHER MAKES A LISTLESS CLASS. 307 

motive, and the culture of attention thus secured is 
comparatively slight. Then fear is a great consumer 
of the mind's energies. The fear of low marks and of 
failure in examinations is a source of great educational 
waste. 

3. Doing the work for the piijpil does not educate. 
Self-exertion develops power. Making the work so 
easy that the pupil does not need to attend closely is a 
great mistake. At every step the learner should be led 
to do his best. Aim to secure complete attention. 

3. A divided teacher mahes a listless class. It is a 
mistake to try to do two things at once. You must 
make your school self-governing, so that you may give 
your entire attention to the class. In no other way can 
you hope to interest your pupils and hold their undi- 
vided attention. 

4. Going on luith the lesson loithoiit the attention of 
the class injures teacher and pupil. Stop. N^ow you 
have attention. Hold it. You must have resources to 
meet emergencies. Don't become vexed. Tell some 
story. Draw something. Enlist your pupils in a dis- 
cussion. Propose some plan. In no case go on with- 
out attention. 

5. nesting satisfied \oitli partial or spurious atten- 
tion is a great mistahe. This is a disastrous educational 
blunder. Feeble attention means feeble knowing and 
feeble feeling and feeble willing. Excellence comes of 
complete attention. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Hclpfal Books.— Our literature is growing rich in its literature 
of attention-culture. Among many excellent productions may be 



308 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

mentioned : Securing and Retaining Attention, by James L. Hughes; 
Chapters on Attention-Culture, in Lessons in Psychology, by J. P. 
Gordy; Chapters on Attention, in Sully's Outlines of Psychology; 
Training of the Attention, in James Mark Baldwin's Handbook on 
Psychology. Our educational journals probably present the best 
articles on this subject. I have found the articles by George P. 
Brown especially helpful. 

Letter. — You will now present to your friend your plan for 
educating attention. You have studied the child. You are now 
familiar with the physiology and the psychology of attention. You 
have considered what others have said about cultivating attention ; 
now you are prepared to write valuable thoughts to help your 
fellow-teachers. 

I. Attention in the Mental Economy. — Show that attention is a 
will-power. Name and define each of the will-powers. Illustrate 
by a river the relations of attention and consciousness. Give exam- 
ples indicating that memory is in the ratio of attention. Point out 
the relations between attention and intellect ; between attention and 
feeling ; between attention and choice. 

II. Terms defined. — Give your definition of attention ; of attend- 
ing ; of educating attention. Give the etymology of the word atten- 
tion. Illustrate the nature of attention by the lens. Analyze an act 
of attention. Give the distinction you make between attracted 
attention and purposed attention. Is attention always voluntary ? 
State the distinction you make between attention and consciousness. 

III. Importance of Attention-Cultnre. — Prove that attending con- 
ditions knowing. What makes the difference between revery and 
investigation ? Show that acquisition and memory are in the ratio 
of attention. Does mental growth depend on attention'? Why may 
teaching be considered the art of educating attention ? 

IV. Growth of Attention. — Have you closely observed the growth 
of child-attention? How early is attracted attention indicated? 
How early do children really give voluntary attention ? From your 
observation describe the growth of attention during the kindergar- 
ten period ; during the primary period ; during the intermediate 
period ; during the high-school period. Illustrate growth by ability 
to master more difficult problems during each succeeding period. 
May attention continue to grow to the meridian of life ? May it be 
kept vigorous in old age ? Give examples from life. 

V. Laws of Attention-Growth. — State in terms of attention the 



EDUCATION OF CHOICE. 309 

law of effort; law of movement; law of determination. Give an 
illustration of each law in terms of your own experience. 

VI. Means for educating Attention. — How does kindergarten 
work strengthen attention ? Why do you count arithmetic of high- 
est value as a means of educating attention ? You may place on the 
board a table of attention-culture values. Give your reasons for the 
value you assign to algebra ; geometry ; geography ; language-lessons ; 
composition ; botany ; Latin ; drawing ; vocal music. 

\ II. Methods of educating Attention.— Make a distinction between 
a law, a means, and a method ; illustrate. How do Kindergarten and 
primary methods differ? Give and illustrate three directions for 
kindergarten work ; three for primary work. How do intermediate 
and primary methods differ"? State five directions for cultivating 
attention during the intermediate period. How do high-school and 
intermediate methods differ I Present five directions for high-school 
work. Place on the board and explain the rules of Comenius 
for securing attention during the recitation. State the author's 
rules. 

VIII. Mistakes in the Education of Attention. — Show the error in 
forced study ; in doing the work foi- the pupil ; in the appeal to fear ; 
in a divided teacher ; in going on without attention ; in partial atten- 
tion ; in spurious attention. Mention other mistakes of this kind. 



CHAPTEK XXY. 

EDUCATION OF CHOICE.* 

By this is meant the development of the power of 
self-determination. Education of the will gives self- 
control and decision of character. Character is organ- 
ized choices. Culture of will is character-building, or 
rather character-growing. Choice crowns the trinity 
of selfhood — self-activity, self-consciousness, and self- 
determination. 

* See chapter on Choice in Elementary Psychology. 



310 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

I. Choice in the Mental Economy. — Will crowns men- 
tality. I will is the sovereign act of self. Self as will 
has for his servants his body, his intellect, and his feel- 
ings. With his servants thoroughly disciplined, the 
sovereign self goes forth to conquer a world, a universe. 

1. Deliberation. As sovereign, self as will calls into 
council his intellectual powers. He deliberates ; he in- 
vestigates ; he considers. The alternatives are weighed. 
Self determines in the light of reason. 

2. Impulsion. The feelings impel, move, urge, in- 
cite self to choose. The appetites clamor for gratifica- 
tion. The passions demand. The ennobling desires 
appeal to reason. Love pleads. Conscience presses 
duty. " Peace ! Come into the court of reason," is 
the mandate of the sovereign. Feelings impel but do 
not compel. Feelings are subjected to reason, and the 
sovereign self determines. 

3. Determination. Self as will determines. We 
feel impulses ; we consider all the inducements ; we de- 
termine. Determination is the sovereign act of self. 
From the decision of self as choice there is no ajDpeaL 
Reconsideration is a voluntary act ; self is sovereign. 

4. Action. Self executes his determinations. We 
carry over into action our purposes. We do what we 
make up our minds to do. Self as action is the history- 
maker. The man of action is the man of executive 
power. 

II. Terms defined.— Choice stands for will. You think of atten- 
tion, choice, and action as the will-powers ; but choice is pre-eminent. 
Most men think of will as the capability to determine. This is its 
usual meaning in literature. Will, choice, and power of self-deter- 
mination are ordinarily used interchangeably; but when we need 
precision we use the specific terms. 



IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATING THE WILL. 311 

1. Choice is the power of self-determination. The following 
definitions are all good : " Will is mind in liberty " ; " Choice is the 
power of preference " ; " Choice is the capability of self to decide in 
view of motives"; "Choice is the native energy of self to deter- 
mine." 

2. Ilotives are inducements to choose. Self as intellect considers 
the motives, and, after deliberation, self as will chooses. A weak 
motive is a slight inducement to choose, but a strong motive is a 
powerful incentive to choice. A high motive is an unselfish motive. 
Motives occasion choices. 

3. Freedom is liberty in choice. I am free to choose. No-thing 
more can be said. Each one is conscious of freedom. But for mis- 
leading theories, no one would even conjecture otherwise. Circum- 
stances, feelings, and considerations occasion choices, but do not 
cause them ; self is the cause. 

4. Education of choice is the development of decision of char- 
acter. This characterizes all great men and women. The power of 
prompt self-determination is grand. Culture develops the vacillat- 
ing child into a Bismarck or a Beaconsfield. 

III. Importance of educating the "Will. — We have 
tried to realize the need to cultivate the several capabili- 
ties of self. The culture of each power is important, 
but it is safe to consider of superlative importance the 
development of decision of character. 

1. DeterwAnation is the secret of success. " What 
a man achieves is simply a question of will." This 
utterance of Beaconsfield is exemplified by his illustri- 
ous career. "The impossible becomes realization to 
the man of indomitable resolution." The resolute 
pupil solves every problem. Culture of will develops 
the power of determination. 

2. Culture of choice gives decision of character. It 
develops the hesitating, vacillating, unreliable child into 
the decisive, persistent, reliable man. Culture of choice 
develops the power to determine promptly and adhere 



312 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

firmly to a purpose. These traits grow into habits, and 
characterize the man. 

3. EduGotion of will maltes for righteousness. Self 
as conscience impels to right, but self as will determines. 
Culture of will develops choosing and doing right into 
habits. The girl, the youth, the woman becomes strong 
to resist temptation and do right. Moral character is 
developed. 

IV. Growth of the Self-determining Powers. — You remember. 
You trace the growth of your will from childhood to the present. 
An hour of introspection is invaluable. You now observe with new 
interest and deeper insight others' wills. You trace the growth of 
the self-determining power as seen in others, from infancy to age. 
You now study with absorbing interest the records of the observa- 
tions made by psychologists of all schools. You try to grasp the 
facts reached by extra-spection as well as those reached by intro- 
spection. 

1. Child-will is remarkable for its weakness. The native energy 
of self-determination is feebly manifested when the infant is but a 
few months old. "The first deliberate movements," says Preyer, 
*' take place only after the close of the first three months." Many 
weeks pass before the child manifests purpose and choice. When 
three years old, will, as attention, choice, and action, is feebly active 
In the kindergarten the child is dependent, docile, tractable, obedient 
credulous. Kindergarten exercises are adapted to strengthening the 
weak will of the child. In the primary period, the child is less docile 
and less dependent. Purpose and determination are now manifested, 
but the child is vacillating and easily influenced. Primary work 
must be so adapted as to cultivate the weak will of the pupil. 

2. Boy-will and girl-will are remarkable for ivaywardness. 
Self-determination asserts itself and resists restraint. The boy has 
a will of his own, and is not always disposed to listen to reason. 
Though will has grown stronger, the pupil is weak in the power to 
adhere to a purpose and resist temptation. The wise culture of will 
is now doubly important. 

3. Youth-will is remarkable for its vigor. The youth attempts 
the impossible with the vigorous determination of a Napoleon to 



MEANS OF CHOICE-CULTURE. 313 

cross the Alps. The youth enters upon his work with a determina- 
tion that brooks no failure. 

4. Man-will is remarkable for decision and tenacity. The man 
enters upon his life-work with firmness of purpose, and adheres to it 
with unswerving tenacity. 

Y. Means for Choice-Culture. — From infancy to age, 
during almost every waking moment, we prefer, we 
choose, we purpose, we maJce plans, we decide, we de- 
termine. These acts tend to develop choice. "Whatever 
calls rational self-determination into vigorous activity 
may be made a means for strengthening this power. 

1. Hard study is doubtless the best means for edu- 
cating self-determination. Compare the student with 
the idle youth. The dawdler is weak, incapable, ineffi- 
cient ; the student is mighty to conquer. Hard study 
develops will-power and makes men. 

2. Discipline, family and school, is of very high 
value for choice-culture. Self-denial, self-control, and 
cheerful obedience to law and lawful authority become 
life-habits. 

3. Biography and history rank high as a means of 
will-culture. The men and women who made history, 
possessed mighty wills. As the youth studies these 
records, his determination to excel becomes stronger 
and stronger. 

4. Good literature tends to develop good will, and 
had literature tends to strengthen had will. Good ideas 
tend to become good purposes and good acts ; had ideas 
tend to become had purposes and bad acts. 

5. Good companionship is of inestimable value in 
will-culture. The friend who leads his companions to 
choose for themselves, and choose wisely, is a treasure. 



314 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

The egotist who chooses for his associates, and the per- 
son who leads them into temptation, are unfortunate 
companions. 

6. Ethics and religion^ after all, stand first Their 
motives are the highest. Purposes reach into eternity. 
Acts of will are infinite in their bearing. Conduct pre- 
pares the self for a position among the eternal tenantry 
of a boundless universe. 

YI. Laws of Self-Determiiiation Growth. — Choosing 
for one's self educates the capability to choose, just as 
judging educates judgment. The great educational laws 
apply to will equally with emotion and intellect, and 
may be stated in terms of choice. 

1. Law of effort — Determining with promptness and adhering 
to purposes with firmness educate choice. 

2. Law of means — Whatever leads one to habitually determine 
for himself may become a means of developing choice. A world 
of possibilities is the unlimited means for will-culture. 

3. Law of method — Plans of work that require constant self- 
determination educate will. The learner is systematically led to 
form purposes and to persist in them. Efficient methods of study 
are such plans of work. 

Laws relating specifically to the culture of will are of great prac- 
tical importance. (1.) Purposed action educates will. A voluntary 
act is one done with a view to some end. Even in the kindergarten, 
the child is continually led to do acts to reach ends. (2.) Forming 
settled determinations educates choice. When everything has been 
considered, a decision must be made, and must not be changed ex- 
cept for good reasons. You will discover other helpful laws, but 
the laws given will guide you in your efforts to educate the will. 

YII. Methods of educating Choice. — Great attention 
has been given to methods of educating the intellectual 
powers, and splendid results are secured. But compara- 
tively little study is devoted to will-culture. Methods 



INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF EDUCATING CHOICE. 315 

of educating perception and memory and reason are 
lessons in every institute, but lessons on methods of 
developing decision of character are rare. Yet all ad- 
mit the superlative importance of conduct. 

YIII. Kindergarten and Primary Methods of educating 
Choice. — The child is led to deliberate and choose. Its 
little choices are respected. When the child deliberates 
and chooses wisely, it is praised and rewarded. When 
it goes wrong from impulse, it is left to suffer the con- 
sequences, and so led back to the path of duty. The 
child is led to assume light responsibilities and to prove 
itself trustworthy. The little ones are led to try to reach 
precision in gymnastics, music, drawing, and manners. 
Kindergarten work is wisely arranged to promote the 
growth of choice. Primary work may safely follow 
similar lines. That children may be led to achieve pro- 
posed ends, the means as well as the ends must be made 
interesting. 

IX. Intermediate Methods of educating Choice. — These 
are plans of will-culture adapted to the intermediate 
pupils. The wise teacher often stands in wonder before 
his class of boys and girls. 'New phases of their nature 
are constantly bubbling up. This is the most trying 
period for the teacher and parent, as well as the most 
critical period for the pupil. Only general suggestions 
can be given. Each teacher must work out and follow 
her own plans. 

1. Leave the picpil to choose. No one but self can 
choose. You can do much for your pupils, but you can 
not choose for them ; nor would it educate mil if you 
could. The act of choice must be the act of the pupil. 
An entire chapter is needed here. 



316 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

2. Train pupils to study vigorously. It becomes a 
habit to choose study rather than play. Then each mo- 
ment devoted to study requires a tremendous effort of 
will. 

3. Lead jpupils to consider. This habit is invalu- 
able. Hasty action is responsible for most crookedness 
and crime. " I did not think," is the standing excuse 
of boys and girls. They do not stop to consider but 
act from impulse. Here is the danger. The pupil who 
thinks before he acts seldom goes far wrong. 

4. Train pupils to choose the right. There may be 
more fun in playing truant than in going to school, but 
the one is wrong and the other is right. By all means 
the pupil must be led to choose the right. 

5. Train the pupil to resist temptation. Tempta- 
tions will come, and the pupils must be educated to 
overcome them. The truant is tempted to lie : he must 
not. In time of peace prepare for war. Prepare the 
pupil for the hour of trial. Boys are sorely tempted 
to smoke and gamble and drink. These habits mean 
ruin. Self-control must be fostered and the boys saved. 

X. High School Method of educating Choice. — Will is 
highly active in youth, and this is the time for its higher 
culture. To control seething appetites and passions re- 
quires a penetrating intellect, a heart full of all enno- 
bling emotions and an iron will. 

1. Ildbitually determining in view of high motives, 
educates choice. Cognitions occasion the practical emo- 
tions, and these lead on to action ; but self as choice 
decides to act or not to act, and also what action. De- 
liberate choice weighs inducements to act. Appetites and 
passions clamor for gratification. The still small voice 



RESISTING TEMPTATION STRENGTHENS WILL. 317 

of conscience commands, " Do rights Self as intellect 
considers. In view of the considerations self as choice 
determines. In the midst of wise counselors there is 
safety, and there is safety in deliberate action. Hasty 
and impulsive action brings woe. We must not yield 
to the first impulse of desire, nor form hasty resolu- 
tions, but must reflect, must weigh the pros and cons 
before determining. Feelings must yield to reason. 

2. Ilahitually siobordinating low and selfish im- 
jpulses to the higher emotions and to reason, educates 
choice. This is self-control. The appetites clamor for 
strong drink with its Pandora box of human ills. But 
the brave youth spurns low and selfish and debasing 
gratifications. The pure, the lovely, the beautiful, the 
good fill his heart with joy, and lift him up to .a higher 
and grander life. I ought weighs more with him than 
palaces of pleasure. Greater is the man who controls 
himself than he who gains battles. It requires more 
self-determination to resist temptation than to face 
danger. 

3. Resisting temptation strengthens icill. Yielding 
weakens. Those poor, weak, fallen wretches can not now 
resist. There is no safety but in early resistance. The 
first glass makes the drunkard, for yielding once leads 
on to yielding again and again, and the youth becomes 
a slave to his appetite. How difl[icult the task of lift- 
ing up the fallen ones ! These unfortunates are slaves 
to habit. They have yielded until they have lost the 
power to resist. Must they perish ? IN'o ; oh, no ! We 
must rescue them by removing temptation, and fos- 
tering the little manhood left. Resisting temptation 
strengthens will. There is absolutely no safety but in 



318 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

resistance. Resisting once gives greater strength to re- 
sist again. Habitually resisting temptations to lie and 
steal and cheat and to unlawful gratification of the ap- 
petites, develops will-power. Contrast a prize-fighter 
with John Wesley. The one has habitually yielded to 
every base impulse and is a low and brutal fellow. The 
other resisted temptation and cherished every ennobling 
virtue, and became a lovely, grand man. 

4. Discipline resulting in self-control educates will. 
The earnest efforts to be regular, prompt, decorous, suc- 
cessful, and moral, immensely strengthen will-power. 
These efi:'orts are every way encouraged. To this end 
school life is better than home life. But some one 
fails. !N^ow the discipline of suffering becomes neces- 
sary in order to stimulate the power of self-control. 

5. Persistent effort to realize jperfection educates 
will. Your ideal is a perfect character : to realize this 
ideal you constantly put forth your best efforts. You 
determinedly follow lines of work calculated to develop 
such a character. You vehemently repress thoughts, 
feelings, and acts calculated to mar your ideal. The 
boundless possibilities of self, and the consciousness of 
capabilities to realize these possibilities stimulate self- 
determination to the utmost. 

XI. Mistakes in educating the "Will. — Character- 
building is pre-eminently the mission of the teacher. 
The Greek educational ideal of character w^as the perfect 
individual ; the Roman ideal was the perfect citizen ; 
but the educational ideal of the twentieth century will 
be the perfect individual self and the perfect social 
self. 

1. Neglect. Our normal schools and teachers' associ- 



GOOD-WILL IS NOT CULTIVATED. 319 

ations fail to give sufficient practical emphasis to con- 
duct. Our methods of intellectual culture are becoming 
scientific and artistic, while our methods of educating 
the emotions and the will remain crude and inefficient. 
Folly and crime keep the race in a state of semi-barbar- 
ism. Great character-builders, like Arnold of Rugby, 
are still phenomenal. 

2. Our training is too largely negati've. We restrain 
rather than develop. We teach language ^positively, 
by leading our pupils to use our language properly ; we 
have abandoned the negative^ false-syntax method. We 
teach penmanship jpositively^ by leading our j)upils to 
aim at ideally perfect forms ; the negative method of 
parading mistakes has been abandoned. The same is 
true of orthography and reading and music and gym- 
nastics. Only in character-building do we retain the 
old, hurtful, negative method. This, too, should speed- 
ily give place to positive will-training. 

3. The extremes of rigid and loose control are hlun- 
ders. The rule of " Do as you please" is scarcely less 
hurtful than the rule of " Must." The child is free, and 
should be induced to choose wisely. We tlirow around 
the young every favoring influence, and do everything 
to develop the habit of self-control. But, from the 
nurSery to the university, we foster free choice and thus 
strengthen the power of self-determination. We seek, 
at every step, to develop the habits of self-control and 
self-government. 

4. Good-ivill is not cidtivated. I^apoleon had an 
iron will but not a good will. Kant tells us that the 
absolutely good is good-will. Certainly it is good-will 
that we want to strengthen. School incentives, I fear, 



320 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

do not always tend to develop a good will. This is 
vital. 

5. Breaking the child'' s will is a cruel blunder. 
This is the mistake of the ignorant and stupid ; and 
who can tell the ruin it has wrought % We cherish and 
strengthen good-will by leading our pupils to choose 
good. Good ideas awaken good emotions and thus oc- 
casion good choices. By interesting the young in good 
ideas we lead them to choose good. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Helpful Books. — Libraries have been written about the will, 
"^m I free to choose, or is my choice necessitated f " This is the 
question of the ages, and has enlisted the best thought of the race. 
But these myriad volumes are not calculated to help much in the 
culture of the will. Education of the Will, in Rosenkranz's 
Philosophy of Education, is excellent. Many good things may be 
gleaned from works on ethics. Good articles on will-culture are 
now beginning to appear in our educational journals. 

Letter. You may greatly interest your friend by treating prac- 
tically of the culture of the power of self-determination. Y^ou will 
do good by recasting your letter and sending it to some paper for 
publication. 

I. Self-Determination in the Mental Economy. — State your view of 
the relations of will and intellect ; of choice and emotion; of choice 
and action. Diagram and explain deliberation, impulsion, determi- 
nation, action. Are you at liberty to prefer one thing to another ? 
Give some proofs. 

II. Terms defined. — Give your definition of attention ; of choice ; 
of action ; of motives ; of weak motives ; of strong motives : of high 
motives ; of low motives ; of freedom. What do you mean by the 
education of choice? Illustrate. 

III. Importance of "Will-Culture. — What has determination to do 
with success! Does will-culture develop decision of character? 
How does will-culture make for righteousness? State two addi- 
tional reasons why you consider will-culture superlatively impor- 
tant. 



EDUCATION OF ACTION. 321 

IV. Growth of Choice. — State your recollections of the growth 
of your power of choice. Tell results of your studies of will-growth 
in others. What have you gained from books ? Describe child- will ; 
boy-will ; youth-will ; man-will ; will of the aged. 

V. Means of Choice-Culture. — Explain the value of hard study ; 
of discipline ; of good literature ; of good companionship ; of biog- 
raphy ; of ethics. Make a table of choice-culture values. 

VI. Laws of the Growth of Choice. — State in terms of choice the 
law of effort ; the law of means ; the law of method. Write out 
two special laws that you have discovered. 

VII. Methods of educating Choice. — Describe the kindergarten 
ways of developing choice ; primary ways ; intermediate methods ; 
high-school methods. Should we be as systematic and persistent in 
the culture of will as in the culture of intellect ? 

VIII. Mistakes in Will-Culture.— What wiU be the educational 
ideal of the twentieth century ? Do we neglect will-culture ? Why 
is negative will-culture counted a mistake? Illustrate. What is 
the golden mean between rigid and loose control? Do school 
methods sometimes develop had will ? Why do you protest against 
breaking the will of the pupil ? 



CHAPTER XXYI. 

EDUCATION OF ACTION. 

Action stands for doing. We act when we do what 
we make up our minds to do. We execute our pur- 
poses. Education of action means the development of 
executive power. We have men of thought like Plato, 
and men of action like Hannibal. Our ideal man is at 
once a man of thought and a man of action. Paul, the 
peerless thinker, was also the peerless worker. 

As Will, Self attends, determines, acts. — We carry out our plans ; 
we execute our purposes ; we make our determinations acts. We are 
endowed with the capability to make our purposes acts. Action is 
21 



322 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

the native energy of self to execute his determinations. It is the 
executive power of the soul. I determine to write a letter : writing 
the letter is self acting. 1 determine to solve the problem : solving 
the problem is self actiiig. I determine to teach a class in Sunday- 
school : teaching the class is self acting. Self, in executing his pur- 
poses, commands all his resources of body and mind. 

I. Action in the Mental Economy. — Mental activity 
culminates in action. Sensations occasion ideas ; ideas 
occasion emotions ; ideas and emotions occasion deter- 
minations; determinations occasion acts. You know, 
you feel, you resolve, you do. You learn that your sick 
neighbor is in need : you pity ; you determine to re- 
lieve his wants ; you now act in ministering to the suffer- 
ing one. The unity of the self is strikingly exhibited 
in action. Self determines, and, in executing his pur- 
pose, he marshals all his energies of mind and body. 
Like the commander of a disciplined army, self hurls 
all his forces into the effort to win the battle. Intiellect 
gives wisdom ; emotion gives impulse ; will gives pur- 
pose and concentration; but in the execution of pur- 
poses action dominates. Self is intent on achievement, 
and exerts all his powers to accomplish his purposes. 

Purposed Action. — Movement is action in its general sense, but 
there are many kinds of movement. Mechanical movement is termed 
mechanical action ; reflex movement is termed reflex action ; impul- 
sive movement is termed impulsive action ; instinctive movement 
is termed instinctive action ; and purposed movement is termed pur- 
posed action. Action, as here used, is purposed actiori, and includes 
all intentional doing. Whatever we do in executing our determi- 
nations is termed willed action. Brute movements are impulsive 
and not rational acts. Impulse passes over into action without the 
intervention of deliberative purpose. Only rational beings — self- 
acting, self-conscious, and self-determining — are capable of doing 
purposed acts. It is purposed action that we educate. We develop 
the energy to execute purposes. 



EDUCATION OF ACTION. 323 

II. Terms defined. — A mind is endowed with capa- 
bilities to act in various ways. The one self does these 
acts, and so we think of a faculty or power as merely a 
capability of a self. Self as will executes. 

1. Action is the native energy of self to execute his 
determinations. All forms of carrying out plans are 
termed action.. The man of action is the man of execu- 
tive power. The terms action^ execution^ volition, and 
executive poioer are used interchangeably. Action is 
simply our capability to execute our purposes. I know, 
I feel, I plan, I execute. 

2. Education of action is the development of the ex- 
ecutive power. This culture develops the habit of exe- 
cuting our plans with promptitude and vigor. It makes 
the difference between the efficient man of affairs and 
the dreamer. The feeble purposed actions of the child 
are the buddings of executive power that may rule an 
empire. 

III. Importance of the Education of Action. — The 
road to failure is paved with unexecuted purposes. De- 
cisive opportunities unimproved are forever lost. The 
tide must be taken at the flood. The power and habit 
of decisive and effective execution are invaluable. 

1. Action-culture malces the scholar. The boy and 
youth who continually form projects of study which 
they never execute are failures. They grow up to be 
men oi projects and not of deeds. Only students who 
learn to execute with iron will their plans of study can 
hope to be crowned. 

2. Action-cidture organizes success. The pupil who 
gets into the habit of succeeding becomes the successful 
man. Doing leads to better doing. 



32 i APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

3. Doing doubles capahility. The inspiration of 
acliievement works wonders. Inactivity dwarfs, while 
activity makes giants. Somehow doing what we plan 
to do makes us mighty to conquer. 

4. Action is a large jpart of life. Much of our 
lives is physical action, as talking, walking, singing, 
eating. Physical action is almost the entire life of the 
child. Most of our adult life is execution of purposes. 
We can thus realize the immense importance of so edu- 
cating action as to lead to achievement. 

5. ^^ Physical education means an economy of force, 
for the reason that every movement is intrusted to the 
muscle best fitted to the end in view. If inaction, or 
the defective action of an organ, causes atrophy, it must 
follow that its frequent activity promotes increased de- 
velopment. This is true of the brain and of all the 
nervous elements used in physical movement. Not 
only is it true that the nervous system has a share in 
the organic changes made by physical exercises, but it 
is as true that the psychical faculties are strongly in- 
fluenced. The will is developed and improved by a 
systematic command of muscle, and this increase of 
will-power is a large factor in the growth of charac- 
ter." * 

lY. Growtli of Action. — The child is a bundle of 
activities. The infant strikes and kicks and sucks and 
cries. These instinctive and reflex movements prepare 
the body for purposed action. Preyer observed willed 
action during the fourth month. Certainly we discover 
the germs of purposed action before the child is six 

* Miss Clara Conway, Paper read before the National Council of Edu- 
cation. 



GROWTH OF ACTION. 325 

months old. But the remarkable feebleness of child- 
will is notorious. Hence the surprising credulity, do- 
cility, obedience, tractableness, and dependence of chil- 
dren. This weakness also explains the impossibility 
of mesmerizing little children. Hypnotism is condi- 
tioned by continued attention, which is impossible to 
the young child. 

The child acts from impulse rather than from pur- 
pose, but culture changes impulsive action into purj^osed 
action. The boy and girl learn to think before they 
act. Action is now becoming effective and achieve- 
ment gives unmeasured pleasure. The executive power 
is highly active in youth, and reaches full activity in 
early manhood. 

From the sixth to the fourteenth year is eminently 
the habit-forming period. The pupil must be led to do 
until doing is rooted into habit. 

V. Means for the Education of Executive Volition. — These are so 
abundant as to embarrass the teacher. We must choose wisely. 

1. Kindergarten-work is mostly action. How admirable the ex- 
ercises are planned to promote the growth of spontaneous action into 
purposed action ! The child intentionally represents realities and 
works to accomplish something. 

2. Gymnastics, school tactics, and good plays, are all valuable 
for action-culture. Pupils get into the habit of executing purposes, 
and of working in harmony with others. 

3* Molding, carving, making things, draiving, and penmanship, 
are admirable for action-culture. Our manual-training schools em- 
phasize the value of these exercises. 

4. llusic, reading, conversation, and composition, are wonderful 
promoters of the growth of willed action. Spelling, pronunciation, 
expression, deserve special mention. 

5. Ilanners and morals justly take precedence during the pri- 
mary and intermediate periods. 

6. Study ranks high during the high-school and college periods. 



326 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

The student works to a programme and continually executes his re- 
solves. 

7. Biography and history are of high value. The achievements 
of others inspire us for achievement. 

YI. Laws of Action-Growth. — ]^o one objects when 
we say, " We learn to do by doing." "Art is long," and 
only repetition gives skill and forms habits. 

1. Executing purposes educates action. !Not mak- 
ing plans, but executing plans, develops the executive 
power. "We gain executive ability by determinedly 
carrying out our purposes. 

2. All lines of work that demand the constant exe- 
cution of purposes may he inade the means of action- 
culture. We have an infinite store-house from which 
to select. Doing intentional acts educates action. Exe- 
cuting determinations develops our executive power. 

3. Plans of work that require the systematic, per- 
sistent, and effective execution of purposes educate ac- 
tion. " Few things are so repulsive as to see a conceited 
teacher with some pet hobby trying to convince children 
that the text-book is, and all previous teachers have been, 
wrong, and he alone has the ' best ' way. There are 
good ways, there are better ways, but I know neither 
man nor woman in all my range of acquaintance who 
has the hest way in education, general or specific. I am 
quite confident that the best wdll not be discovered in 
my day." * However, we may modestly strive after 
the best. Yanderbilt told the ambitious youth that he 
had made money by working hard and saying nothing. 
Teachers may safely pursue this course : seek the best 
ways, and kt results speak for you. 

*A. E. Winship. 



LEAD THE PUPIL TO FORM GOOD HABITS. 327 

YII. Primary and Intermediate Methods of educating 
Action. — These are plans of work which lead j)iipils to 
habitual]/ execute their purposes. Self as action exe- 
cutes his own purposes. Systematically and persistently 
executing purposes educates action. Primary and in- 
termediate methods are plans of school work adapted 
to pupils from six to fourteen years of age. This is 
termed the habit-forming period. The right culture of 
action is now of the utmost importance. 

1. Lead the pupil to do. Knowing comes before 
doing. The pupil, in view of knowing and feeling, de- 
termines and acts. A purposed action implies knowing 
and emotion. Just here we need to pause and try to 
gain a deeper insight. The child in reality begins to 
do when its knowledge is shadowy, and w^lien it is not 
easy to distinguish impulsive action from purposed ac- 
tion. Doing, it is certain, leads to better knowing and 
better doing. You lead the child to test the apple by 
each sense, and to mold it and to draw it. These pur- 
posed acts cultivate the power to act and also help the 
child to gain a better know^ledge of the apple. May we 
not thus harmonize, on a higher plain, the expressions, 
"We learn to do by knowing"; "We learn to do by 
doing" ; and, " We learn to know by doing" ? 

2. Lead the pupil to form good Tidbits. This in- 
cludes a large section of your work. You manage to 
have the pupil keep on acting properly until good 
manners become fixed habits. You lead the pupil to 
go on doing right until right doing grows into a firm 
habit. You lead the pupil to continue spelling correctly 
and pronouncing correctly and composing correctly un- 
til these acts grow into life-habits. 



328 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

3. Lead the jpitpil to form the habit of succeeding. 
Give your pupils work that tliej can do, and then man- 
age to have them do it. Thej will thus get into the 
habit of succeeding. You need to foster pluck. Pupils 
will accomplish what thej undertake. They must 
know no such word as fail. The habit of succeeding, 
now acquired, becomes a life-habit. 

4. Appreciate success. The veteran minister, as well 
as the infant just taking its iirst step, is strengthened by 
judicious praise. The little successes of the child de- 
serve warm appreciation, as do the greater successes of 
the girls and boys. "Without this appreciation on the part 
of the parents and teachers and associates, few pupils 
ever amount to much. Care must be taken to praise 
earnest effort and real success in such ways as will lead 
to greater effort and greater success without exciting 
vanity. 

YIII. High-School Methods of educating the Executive 
Power. — The faltering child has become the determined 
youth. The aimless boy has become a student with a 
purpose, l^ow is the time to develop the iron will. 
The impulsive and daring youth, amid all tempests, 
must be educated to adhere firmly to his purposes and 
determinedly work out his life-plans. How may parents 
and ministers and friends and teachers help ? How may 
the youth develop great executive power ? 

1. Worh to a programme. The railroad has its 
time-table and the school has its programme. ]S"o less 
does the individual need to have a systematic plan of 
work. The programme is a wonderful conservator of 
mental and physical energy. The successful men that 
reach a grand old age owe much to system. Working 



APPROVE GOOD WORK. 329 

to a programme gives tenacity of purpose and greatly 
strengthens the executive power. It is the way to suc- 
cess. The writer has induced liundreds of youths to 
form the habit of working to a programme. " To this 
habit I owe my success," is the cheering testimony re- 
ceived from scores. I see no other way in which you 
can do so much for your students as in educating them 
to make and to follow good plans of work. 

2. Approve good work. This is the teacher's glad 
office. Many a mother has made a noble man out of 
her son by her warm appreciation of his achievements. 
Many a wife has made a great man out of her husband 
by her approval of his noble acts. Your pupils, encour- 
aged by your smiles of warm appreciation, will do any 
amount of w^ork. Hearty approval is better than in- 
struction. Icebergs may do for lawyers, but they will 
not do for teachers, 

3. Study systematically. Hard study develops will- 
power as nothing else does. It develops attention be- 
cause it is the concentration of effort. It educates self- 
determination because it is the constant exercise of 
choice. It educates action because it is the determined 
execution of purposes. But the student must study 
systematically. Spurts do not help much. Studying 
vigorously, day after day, and adhering to a well- 
digested programme, strengthens the executive power 
as nothing else can. 

4. Foster the habit of succeeding. Success is bring- 
ing about desired results. Every problem the student 
solves is a success. Every lesson the youth masters is 
a success. Every temptation resisted or duty done is a 
success. It is infinitely important to youths to get into 



330 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tlie habit of succeeding. ]^othing succeeds like suc- 
cess. The balky horse will not try. The student who 
failed yesterday and to-day will not try to-morrow. 
The habit of failing weakens even hope. Our students 
must not fail. 

IX. Mistakes in educating Action. — The teacher seeks 
insight. Child-nature and child-growth are studied with 
tireless interest. Everything tending to promote healthy 
growth is fostered, and everything tending to retard or 
mar is avoided. 

1. Action-culture is neglected. The development of 
rational self-activity is primary. How often this is for- 
gotten in our zeal to impart knowledge ! Right habits 
are more important than a knowledge of fractions. 
Studies are means of calKng forth effort and thus devel- 
oping power. Culture must be many-sided. Will and 
emotion, as well as intellect, must be educated. Each 
lesson, in some way, must educate the entire child. Ex- 
clusive intellectual culture is a fundamental error. 

2. Pupils are 'permitted to fail. In the average 
school, half the pupils fail day after day. The blun- 
dering recitations, through which they are dragged^ 
do not help. The fatal habit of failing becomes a life- 
habit. This must not be. The work must be such as 
the pupils can do, and they must be led to do it. Sue 
cess in easy work is immeasurably better than failure 
in hard work. The habit of succeeding must be in- 
grained. 

3. Action is not rooted into habit. The educational 
waste resulting from this neglect is enormous. How 
much of mental waste is saved when the child early 
forms the habit of truth-telling! Wliat we do habit- 



INJUDICIOUS PRAISE IS A WOFUL MISTAKE. 331 

ually we do easily. How inexpressibly important it is 
that all right habits be fixed early in life ! 

4. Bad habits are not eradicated. Girls are suffered 
to go on sipping wine ; boys are suffered to go on 
smoking the fatal cigarette. Bad habits are like dis- 
eases : they must be eradicated before good habits can be 
formed. We must lead our pupils to stop doing wrong, 
and thus break up bad habits. "We must lead them to 
begin doing right, and keep on doing right, and thus 
establish good habits. 

5. ^'BreaJcing a chiUVs will is not the way to edu- 
cate it, any more than breaking a stick is the way to 
bend it ; when it is once broken, there is nothing left 
to bend. It is never right, whether at home or at 
school, to make a child give in through mere terror. 
Education presupposes sympathy. Terror kills sym- 
pathy. The parent or teacher who makes a child 
afraid of him, puts that child out of his reach. It be- 
comes forever impossible for that parent or teacher to 
educate that child. He may force him to recite lessons, 
and compel him to obey commands ; but that confi- 
dential leading of mind and will into larger fields and 
wiser ways in which true education consists is utterly 
impossible. A rule maintained by terror is a reign of 
death, w^hether in home, or school, or state." * 

6. Injudicious praise is a mistahe. Talented young 
ministers and teachers are often spoiled by flattery, as 
are hundreds of bright boys and pretty girls. Un- 
merited praise is poison, and its product is the vain 
egotist. Judicious praise is always helpful, and should 
take the place of sarcasm and fault finding. 

* President W. D. Hyde. 



332 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Letter. — Your letter to your teacher-friend about the education 
of action will be full of helpful suggestions. You feel deeply the 
necessity for reform in our methods of educating the will. You 
will strongly urge this. 

I. Position of Action in the Mental Economy. — Point this out in 
cut, page 2, and in diagram, page 284. Trace sensations up to ideas, 
up to emotions, up to determinations, up to actions. Illustrate. 

II. Terms defined. — Give your definition of action ; of purposed 
action ; of executive volition ; of the executive power ; of the educa- 
tion of action. 

III. Importance of Action-Culture. — Why do you consider the 
education of action very important? How does it affect scholar- 
ship? What has it to do with success? How does it bear on 
capability ? How much of life is action ? 

IV. Growth of Action. — What kind of activity makes up most 
of the child's life? How early does the child manifest purposed 
action? How does reflex and impulsive action become willed ac- 
tion? Describe the growth of action during the kindergarten 
period ; during the primary period ; during the intermediate period ; 
during the high-school period ; during the college period. What do 
you consider the habit-forming period ? 

V. Means for the Education of Action. — Point out how kinder- 
garten-work helps. What value do you give to gymnastics? to 
drawing? to music? to manners? to study? Place on the board 
your table of action-culture values. 

VI. Laws of Action-Growth. — State the law of effort in terms of 
action; the law of means; the law of method. What does Dr. 
Winship say about methods ? What does Vanderbilt say was his 
method of acquiring wealth ? 

VII. Primary and Intermediate Methods of educating Action. — 
What do you mean by primary methods? by intermediate methods! 
by high-school methods? by college methods? Point out the rela- 
tions between knowing and doing. How will you lead your pupils 
to form good habits ? How will you get your pupils into the habit 
of succeeding? How does judicious praise help ? 

VIII. High-School Methods of educating the Executive Power. — 
Show the benefits of working to a programme. How does approv- 



CULTURE OF THE WILL. 333 

ing of good work help? Give some of the benefits of studying 
systematically. Why should the habit of succeeding be fostered ? 

IX. Mistakes in educating Action. — Why do we neglect action- 
culture ? Show the bad effects of permitting pupils to fail. Point 
out the waste resulting from the failure to root action into habit. 
Why should bad habits be eradicated? Is it a mistake to try to 
break the child's will 1 Mention some of the evil effects of flattery. 



CHAPTER XXYII. 



The ptcrpose of loill-training is character. By char- 
acter is meant those established and fixed tendencies that 
are so strong as to give direction to conduct. Loyalty 
to conviction characterizes high character. " The crown- 
ing purpose of education is to make the will follow the 
lead of conviction in all matters involving the idea of 
duty. The moral will is the significance, so to speak, 
of all the other activities of the mind. Institutional 
life is the moral will as it has realized itself. The ethi- 
cal ideal is actualized in human society to the extent 
that it is common to the particular members. The 
principle of conduct in the ethical world is what is 
known as the moral law. This law is the universal 
conviction that every act of each particular member of 
the ethical whole should be such that when it is made 
universal — that is, becomes the act of all — it will return 
upon the doer to bless and not to curse him. In this 
way the institutional world becomes a ministration of 

* In this chapter quotation-marks are omitted where changes have been 
made, as the authors are not responsible for the form in which their thoughts 
are here presented. 



334 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

grace ; each citizen receiving in return for every good 
deed the good increased a thousand-fold." * 

The will is the self -determining energy of the soitl. 
It is our power to choose those courses of action vrhich 
we will follow, and reject those from which we will re- 
frain. It is the faculty of the soul to initiate activity. 
Acts of the self as will are volitions ; they are choices 
when we deter'inine on one of tw^o or more courses, but 
they are executive volitions when we do as we deter- 
mine. The self i^free in willing ; is endowed with the 
power of self-determination. Every one is aware of 
this "We are conscious of our ow^n liberty of action. 
A jperson literally does as he pleases, and says truly, 
"I will^'' and "I will not" The self can not be com- 
pelled to will. We are conscious of freedom in will- 
ing. 

The self as will determines in view of motives. The 
considerations which occasion choices are termed mo- 
tives. Cognitions and emotions move self to determine. 
We lead others to determine and act by placing motives 
before them. All government and all plans for human 
elevation are based on the psychological truth that one 
person can influence the voluntary conduct of another. 
The educator seeks to place before his pupils the high- 
est motives. Cosmic motives are the highest ; altruis- 
tic motives are the next highest; selfish motives are 
low ; malevolent motives are the lowest. The high- 
est group of cosmic motives is the ethical. These 
are the emotions of an enlightened conscience prompt- 
ing to right doing. Who is not at times aware of 
rising ahove self and even above the promptings of 

* George P. Brown ; paper in the National Council of Education. 



EDUCATION OF WILL. 335 

all forms of love, and acting solely from a sense of 
duty ? * 

All education is, in a sense, education of will. All 
excellence developed by education is of the nature of 
liabit. Will-culture places tlie cope-stone on the whole 
educational building. It determines the character which 
forms the guerdon or the doom of every man ; for char- 
acter is a completely developed will. 

Education builds on the rock of established truths, 
and leaves theorists to harmonize at their leisure. An 
action done with a view to some end is a willed action. 
In early life voluntary acts are largely muscular move- 
ments, as in writing, drawing, singing, reading, or prac- 
ticing music. It is important to insist on the right 
muscular adjustment from the very first lesson. Right 
habits are thus formed. 

Yolition implies more than a cognition of an act to 
be performed, more than an emotion impelKng to its 
performance. Cognitions and emotions are indispen- 
sable prerequisites of volition, but will is the fiat that 
transforms cognition and emotion into jpuT^ose and 
action. The immense importance of will-culture is ap- 
parent. Half the race fall short of reasonable possibili- 
ties because tliey lack energy of will, and not for lack 
^ of clear intelligence or delicate sensibility. 
I Education of the ivill develojys decision of char- 

acter. It becomes a habit to determine promptly and 
to adhere to purposes with unalterable decision. Inde- 
cision weakens innumerable lives. Decision of char- 
acter may be developed by adopting, in our educational 
methods, specific plans of work for will-culture. All 

* Moral Education, by Larlcin Dunton, in Education for April, 1891. 



336 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

educators admit tliis as a theory, but most fail to carry 
it out in practice. School discipline, it is true, does 
much in the right direction, but it alone is insufficient. 
What is wanted is a discipline which the individual im- 
poses on himself. Any human being who firmly con- 
trols himself in the face of a great temptation, and who 
persists in executing his purpose in the midst of fear- 
ful difficulties, is drawing upon the universal fountain 
of spiritual power, and assuredly he shall have his re- 
ward."^ 

Work, and therein have Well-heing. — " We acquire the virtues hy 
doing the acts, as is the case with the arts too. We learn an art by 
doing that which we wish to do when we have learned it ; we be- 
come builders by building, and harpers by harping. And so by do- 
ing just acts we become just, and by doing acts of temperance and 
courage we become temperate and courageous. Both virtues and 
vices result from and are formed by the same acts in which they mani- 
fest themselves, as is the case with the arts also. It is by building 
that good builders and bad builders alike are produced ; by building 
well they will become good builders, and bad builders by building 
badly. It is by our conduct in our intercourse with other men that 
we become just or unjust. So, too, with our animal appetites and 
the passion of anger ; for by behaving in this way or in that on the 
occasions with which these passions are concerned some become tem- 
perate and gentle and others profligate and ill-tempered. In a word, 
the several habits or characters are formed by the same kind of acts 
as those which they produce. Hence we ought to make sure that 
our acts be of a certain kind, for the resulting character varies as 
they vary. It makes no small difference, therefore, whether a man 
be trained from his youth up in this way or in that, but a great dif- 
ference, or rather all the difference." f 

" This is the ineradicable, forever-enduring gospel : work, and 
therein have well-being. All true work is sacred ; in all true work, 

* Education of the Will, by J. Clark Murray, in Educational Review 
for June, 1891. 

i" Ariritotle, in his Ethics. 



GETTING BOYS AND GIRLS TO DO RIGHT. 337 

were it but true hand-labor, there is something of divineness. 
Labor, wide as the earth, has its summit in heaven. Produce ; pro- 
duce; were it but the pitifulest infinitesimal fraction of a product, 
produce it in God's name. 'Tis the utmost thou hast in thee ; out 
with it, then. Up, up ! whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with 
thy whole might. Work while it is called to-day; for the night 
cometh, wherein no man can work. Two men I honor, and no third. 
First, the toil-worn craftsman, that with earth-made implement 
laboriously conquers the earth and makes her man's. Toil on, toil 
on ; thou art in thy duty, be out of it who may ; thou toilest for the 
altogether indispensable, for daily bread. A second man I honor, 
and still more highly : him who is seen toiling for the spiritually in- 
dispensable — not daily bread, but the bread of life. Is not he too 
in his duty ? If the poor and humble toil that we may have food 
must not the high and glorious toil for him in return, that he may 
have light, have guidance, freedom, immortality? These two, in 
all their degrees, I honor ; all else is chaff, which let the wind blow 
whither it listeth." * 

Getting hoys mid girls to do right. There are two 
ways by which we may endeavor to get boys and girls 
to do right. One way is to fill their minds with rules ; 
another way is to train the will in habits. The second 
is a much harder thing to do, but it is the only effective 
way. There is no text-book on the subject, and it is 
impossible to write one. 

The education of the will can not be introduced into the curricu- 
lum as a new requirement. It must be entirely free and uncon- 
strained. Unless the impulse to do it is already in the teacher's 
heart, no enactment of the school committee can put it into the 
school. I can not tell you how to do it. You must work it out for 
yourselves as opportunities present themselves. I can simply call 
your attention to its importance, and indicate some very general 
lines on which you can proceed. 

The best field for this education of the will is in the home ; for 
there life is most simple and real, contact is most intimate, and de- 

* Thomas Carlyle. 
22 



338 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

sires and passions express themselves with least restraint. Next to 
the home comes the school. Next to father and mother stands the 
teacher. The pastor, the Sunday-school teacher, the employer, the 
writer, the lecturer, may each do something in this moral training. 
But the teacher has the best chance of them all, if he only has the 
will and the skill to use it. 

The test of a man's education is the quality of work that he can do, 
not the quantity of information that he can remember. Mere mem- 
orized information in the mind of the scholar is as worthless as un- 
digested food in the stomach of an athlete. The development of 
strong intellectual muscles and steady moral nerves is the end and 
aim of education. 

Train the pupils in the schools to do the work there given 
them to do with promptness, neatness, and order — with all their 
might and to the best of their ability ; and you will do your part 
toward fitting them for any sphere of life ; making them ready to 
take hold of any kind of honest work, and qualifying them to as- 
sume the duties and responsibilities of membership in the social and 
industrial order, and of citizenship in church and state.* 

The education of the will. This, in the broader 
sense, means the whole of one's training to moral and 
prudential conduct. In the narrow sense, it means the 
development of the power to initiate movements tribu- 
tary to desired ends and to inhibit irrelevant impulses. 
The longer one attends to a topic the more mastery of 
it he has. The power of voluntarily bringing back a 
wandering attention over and over again is the very 
root of judgment, character, and will. An education 
which develops this power is the ^^\\^^\ao\s. jpar excel- 
lence. The more interest pupils have in advance in the 
subject the better they will attend. Induct them in such 
a way as to knit each new thing on to some acquisition 
already there, and, if possible, awaken curiosity, so that 

* The Education of the Will, by President W. De Witt Hyde, in 
Popular Educator. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE WILL. 339 

tlie new thing shall seem to come as an answer to a 
question pre-existing in the mind. I count myself 
among those who consider will as an original spiritual 
energy.* 

Rewards and Punishments, f — The Father endowed us with the 
power of self-determination, and He always leaves us free to choose. 
The expression of will in free choice is the highest expression of 
personality. God holds sacred the personality of every man. He 
sets before us life and death, but leaves us absolutely free in the 
exercise of our will-power. He has so constituted things that hap- 
piness comes of right choices, and misery follows wrong determina- 
tions. The rewards and punishments are declared in advance, but 
we do the choosing. God never forces our choices. 

As our Father deals with us, so we should deal with our pupils. 
The privilege of personal choice should be sacredly guarded. While 
we must use all proper influences to induce our pupils to choose 
aright, we should never, never, never force their choices. All good 
comes through right choices, and all evil comes through wrong 
determinations. The rewards and punishments are declared in ad- 
vance, but the pupil does the choosing. In training the will we 
hold out alternatives, but the final responsibility of a choice, with 
its consequences, rests with the pupil. 

* Prof. William James. t H. Clay Trumbull. 



PAET VI. 

THE ART OF TEACHING, 



CHAPTER XXVIII.— Laws of Teaching. 
XXIX. — Teaching Processes. 
XXX. — Teaching Periods. 
XXXI. — Primary Methods op Teaching. 
XXXII. — Intermediate Methods of Teaching. 
XXXIII. — High- School Methods of Teaching. 
XXXIV. — College Methods of Teaching. 



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PART SIXTH. 

TEE ART OF TEACHING, 



Teaching is the art of promoting human growth. 
It is the art of so guiding effort as to prepare for com- 
plete Hving. Teaching is the art of education, and is 
based on education as a science. Pedagogy is a con- 
venient general term, embracing both the theory and 
practice of education. We think of teaching as the 
actual work of leading pupils to put forth their best 
eiforts in the best ways. The end is complete develop- 
ment, and the means is the course of study. Teaching 
has its laws^ its jprocesses, its jperiods^ and its methods. 
These are the products of the thought and experience 
of the race. Teaching is a jprogressive art as education 
is a progressive science. The new education is the edu- 
cation of to-day^ as the new chemistry is the chemistry 
of to-day. Progress comes in two ways : (1) From the 
discovery of new principles ; (2) from new applications 
of known principles. 

Map of Mental Growth. — This device is an effort to symbolize in 
one connected view the growth of the mental powers. This growth 
is certainly continuous from infancy to the meridian of life, but the 
artist would arrest growth at about the eighteenth year ! Reader, I 
must trust to you to correct this blunder. Send the author a copy 
of your map, with your suggestions. Future editions will have the 
perfected map. 



34:4 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Educational Evolution. — Bound up in the human germ are all 
the possibilities of manhood. Education is the development of the 
possibilities of this germ Each human germ is a self in embryo. 
Educational evolution is the development of the native energies of 
the self. All the capabilities of the man are feebly active in the 
child ; education develops native power, but does not create capabili- 
ties. Each self is endowed with the same elemental energies ; in all 
the ages no new capability has been added. Education simply 
means the growth of the feeble child into the strong man, equipped 
for the battle of life. Teaching is the art of promoting this growth. 



CHAPTEE XXYIII. 

LAWS OF TEACHING. 

All good comes through law. The Infinite Lawgiver 
is the Infinite Good. The wise man is happy because he 
finds out and obeys law. but the fool is miserable be- 
cause of his ignorance and waywardness Law voices 
the eternal fitness of things, and is the articulated Ian 
guage of energy. 

Growth through laiufid self-actimty is the central 
idea in the science of education. Around the central 
idea are grouped the great facts of mind and mental 
growth. These fundamental truths are termed educa- 
tional principles and educational laws. These, stated 
in terms of art, are guiding truths, are laws of teaching. 
Lawful self-eif ort educates ; ways of securing such effort 
are here called 

The Nine Laws of Teaching. 

I. Be what you would have your Pupils become. — 

This is the granite. Weak, wayward, uncultured per- 



LAWS OF TEACHING. 



345 



sons, thougli versed in all the methods, can not educate. 
Teachers of culture and character, of head-power and 
heart-power, will lind ways to educate. Superior man- 
hood is infinitely more important than superior methods. 
Our teaching pyramids crumble because they are not 
based on the granite. Teachers need to be strong, true, 
manly. They need to be men and women of faith and 
hope and love. "Worthy teachers do everything to make 
the most of then. selves^ that they may do most for their 
pupils. It is an education to be for years a pupil of a 
great teacher. 

The Laws of Teaching. 



7. 



g LEAD THE PUPILTHROUGH RIGHT IDEAS 
TO RIGHT CONDUCT. 



TRAIN PUPILS TO HABITUALLY DO THEIR 
BEST IN THE BEST WAYS. 



TRAIN LEARNERS TO ASSIMILATE INTO UNITY 
THEIR ACQUISITIONS. 



LEAD LEARNERS TO FIND OUT, TO TELL, 
AND TO DO, FOR THEMSELVES. 



BY EASY STEPS LEA-D THROUGH THE KNOWN 
TO THE UNKNOWN. 



4. SECURE ATTENTION THROUGH INTEREST. 



3- USE EASY WORDS AND APT ILLUSTRATIONS. 



9 KNOW THOROUGHLY THE CHILDREN AND THE 
'^' SUBJECT. 



1' BE WHAT YOU WOULD HAVE YOUR PUPILS BECOME. 



The Pyramid.— 1 am indebted to Dr. J. M. Gregory for the idea. 1 
found his Seven Laws of Teachiu2: helpful in my normal classes. The at- 
tempt is here made to present some of the most important laws of teaching 
in logical sequence in the form of a pyramid. Dear teacher, reconstruct 
the pyramid to suit your views, and write a paper on each law. What an 
interesting symposium could be arranged for a reading circle or summer 
normal school by placing the pyramid on the board and having a short, 
spicy essay on each law! Suggestive summary statements are of great 
value. 



346 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

II. Know thoroughly the Child and the Subject. — The 
first mandate of pedagogy is, ^^Knov) yoiii^self that you 
may know the child.'''' The teacher is but a child of 
larger growth. The second mandate is, ''Live close to 
the living, growing, loving childP With infinite in- 
terest you study your growing pupils as the botanist 
studies the growing plants. You gain insight and in- 
spiration, which fits you for the joyous work of leading 
your pupils up to a higher and better physical, mental, 
and moral life. "Know thoroxighly what you try to 
teach " is the third mandate of pedagogy. You have 
studied, as best you could, many things. You have 
tried to gain a general view of the realm of knowledge. 
]Srow you concentrate your efforts. You aspire to a 
thorough knowledge of the branches you propose to 
teach and of their relations to mental growth. Under 
the guidance of eminent teachers you now study pro- 
foundly the child and the subject from the standpoint 
of the educator. Under the direction of skilled teach- 
ers you gain by practice-teaching skill in teaching. 
Thus prepared, you will enter the school-room as an 
artist, and will be able through years of toil to prove 
yourself a master-workman. 

III. Use Easy Words and Apt Illustrations. — Sun- 
light clearness characterizes the best teaching. Sit at 
the feet of Jesus while he teaches his disciples. Fol- 
low Socrates through the streets of Athens as he prac- 
tices the Socratic method. Listen to the masters of 
assemblies as they hold spell-bound the waiting thou- 
sands. Read the best in literature. You find that the 
great teachers of mankind observe this law. Because 
of the failure to observe it, more than half of all at- 



LAWS OF TEACHING. 347 

tempts at teaching is waste labor. Could teachers be 
led to practice this rule, it would almost double the 
efficiency of the teaching force of the world. 

lY. Secure Attention through Interest. — Attention is 
the condition of knowledge as well as of mental growth. 
We voluntarily attend, but we choose to give attention 
to the things which interest us. The efficient teacher 
in some way awakens and sustains interest, and thus 
gains and holds the attention of her pupils Her pupils 
are happy ^ and they do more in a week than the un- 
happy pupils of the stupid teacher do in a month. 
Herbart counts tedioiisness the great educational sin. 
He might have termed the teacher-hahit of stupidity, 
dullness, dryness, and tediousness, the unpardonable 
teache7'-sin. 

Y. By Easy Steps lead through the Known to the Un- 
known. — The learner must take tlie steps. The teacher 
guides effort, but pupils ascend, round by round, by 
their own efforts. It is a great thing in education to 
adjust and adapt the work so that the pupils ccm take 
with joy each advanced step. It is a greater thing to 
lead them to take these steps. This is the art of teach- 
ing. You make the learner's present attainments the 
basis. Through what your pupils know now you lead 
them to find out new things. This law stands for a 
large part of the work of the teacher as an instructor. 

YI. Lead Learners to find out, tell, and do for Them- 
selves.- — Self -effort under guidance educates. The teach- 
er plans but the pupil does. From the kindergarten to 
the university, the educator so manages that a pupil dis- 
covers for himself, tells in his own words, and does 
things in his own way. Persons thus tutored become 



348 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

independent thinkers, original writers, and self-reliant 
actors. This law strikes at the roots of some of the 
worst pedagogical evils. 

YII Lead Learners to assimilate into Unity their 
Acquisitions. — Isolated ideas are not knowledge. All 
things are related, and the universe is a unit. From 
the kindergarten to the university the learner is led to 
assimilate into unity his experiences. Even the child- 
world is now wrought into unity. This is a law of the 
new education, and it is absolutely revolutionary. 

This unitizing process in our times is called apperceiving. It 
requires many terms to fully express this very complex process. 
Apperception stands for psychic reaction, interpretation, conception^ 
and assimilation, all taken together. This process involves the fol- 
lowing elements : (1) A train of ideas already in the mind as a result 
of experience ; (2) a new idea which is brought into relation to this 
train so as to be recognized through it, and (3) interpreted and ex- 
plained by it ; (4) this process resulting in a twofold result, namely, 
a knowledge of the real existence of examples or individual in- 
stances of the idea in question : and (5) the subsumption of those 
particular instances under a general concept and the recognition 
that the individual perceived is only a special phase and not the 
whole reality of the general idea. 

YIII. Train your Pupils to habitually do their best 
in the Best Ways. — This is the whole of method. Doing 
one's best develo|3s power ; putting forth effort in the 
best ways gives skill and culture. Men become great 
and reach eminence by habitually doing their best. 
Winship did his best in lifting two hundred pounds ; 
but day by day he lifted more and more until he could 
lift three thousand pounds. Beecher told the students 
that he owed his success to the habit of always doing 
his best. Doing things feebly and bunglingly dwarfs. 



TEACHING TROCESSES. 349 

"We must expect great things of our pupils, and lead 
them habitually to make great efforts. This is the edu- 
cation that develops superior men and women. 

IX. Lead the Pupil through Eight Ideas to Right 
Conduct. — This is the crowning law of teaching. The 
pupil is rational, impulsive, free. Right ideas induce 
right impulses and right acts. The teacher controls the 
■jpxijpiVs ideas. Riyht ideas are kept before the pupil 
until they become right acts. The pupil is led to re- 
peat these acts until they become habits. Here you 
have the whole of moral education in a nutshell. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

TEACHING PROCESSES. 

The teacher must have the pupil proceed in definite 
ways in order to learn. These ways are termed teach- 
ing pi'ocesses ; it is equally proper to call them learn- 
ing jprocesses. We group these processes thus : 

Teaching Processes. 

J j Objective Process. jjj^ j Inductive Process. 

( Subjective Process. * I Deductive Process. 

jj j Analytic Process. jy j Empirical Process. 

( Synthetic Process. ' i Kational Process. 

V. Apperceptive Process. 

I. ]sui^fcS?e'*Frocyss. These are the two ways of find- 
ing out. The first is the process of gaining particular 
ideas, and the second is the process of gaining general 
ideas. 



350 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

1. The objective process is the way we gain ideas 
directly from things. Things, as liere used, include 
material objects^ mental acts^ and necessary realities. 
At first tlie mental life is sensation. Through its sensa. 
tions we lead the child to gain ideas of material things, 
and we call these lessons sense-ohject-lessons. Later, the 
mental self is awareness. Through its awareness we 
lead the child to gain ideas of its mental acts, and we 
call these lessons self-object-lessons. Later, the mental 
life is necessary -intuition. Through its necessary-in- 
tuitions we lead the child to gain ideas of necessary- 
realities, and w^e call these lessons necessary-reality 
object-lessons. 

2. The subjective process is the way we gain general 
notions. Things are related. We discern relations; 
we elaborate our percepts into concepts ; we think our 
notions into truths ; we make definitions and solve 
problems ; we write essays and invent machines. We 
lead our pupils to thinlc their notions into higher forms, 
and we call these lessons subject-lessons. Conceiving, 
judging, reasoning, are subjective processes. 

The process of gaming ideas of things is objective ; but the process 
of elaborating percepts into truths is subjective. When we study our- 
selves, self is both object and subject. The self studied is object; 
but the self that studies is subject. Objective knowledge is the basis 
of subjective knowledge. The objective and subjective processes go 
on together and continually re-enforce each other. The objective 
predominates in early life, but later the subjective predominates. 
" The mind ever rises from clear individual to distinct general no- 
tions." 

II- ] Syntheti/p?ocSs. These are the two ways in which 
we must proceed in order to gain mastery. We divide 
to conquer, and unite to understand. 



TEACHING PROCESSES. 351 

1. The analytic process is the way we teach and 
learn hy separating wholes into parts. We are inca- 
pable of grasping complex wholes, so we divide tliem 
and master part by part. However we make the divis- 
ion, we call the process analytic whenever we sepa- 
rate wholes into parts in order to study the parts. 
Teaching is analytic when we lead our pupils to sepa- 
rate wholes into parts for detailed study. 

2. Synthetic process is the way we teach and learn 
by uniting parts into wholes. The parts are consid- 
ered in their relations to each other and in their re- 
lations to the whole. Part and %chole are used in their 
widest sense. The earth is a part of the solar system, 
and oxygen is a part of water. The synthetic process 
includes all forms of combining parts into wholes. 
Teaching is synthetic when we lead our pupils to unitize 
their knowledge. 

Analysis and Synthesis must go together.— They are always asso- 
ciated. Important as thoroughness of analysis is, it is worthless 
unless accompanied by a proper synthesis. Analysis is valuable only 
in its relation to unification. Unless the elements of analysis are 
rightly unified, they lose their importance. Synthesis is made more 
perfect by making analysis more complete ; but when a proper syn- 
thesis is completed, there is no need for further analysis. Studies 
are termed analytic when the analytic process is most prominent, 
and synthetic when the synthetic process predominates.* 

III. ILfductivtlroS These are the two ways in 
which we investigate. We seek truth inductively and 
deductively. 

1. The inductive process is the way we proceed in 
reaching generals through particulars. The child con- 

* F. B. Palmer, in Science of Education. 



352 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tinually makes its easy inductions and thus finds out for 
itself. You lead your advancing pupils to make larger 
and still more important inductions. Thus they find 
out for themselves principles and laws. 

2. The deductive process is the way we proceed in 
reaching particulars through generals. In this way we 
extend our knowledge as well as verify our conclusions. 
The child makes its little deductions as well as its in- 
ductions. 

Induction and Deduction must go together. — Induction rises from 
particular truths to general truths, from fact to law ; deduction de- 
scends from general truths to particular truths, from principles to 
consequences. Induction proceeds from parts to wholes ; deduction 
proceeds from wholes to parts. Induction and deduction accom- 
pany each other and blend together so intimately that it is often 
difficult to sever them. Like analysis and synthesis, induction and 
deduction are always associated. 

IV. llSrSaT- We gain knowledge through 
experience and through inference. 

1. The empirical process is the way we gain knowl- 
edge by experience. We find out by trying it that fire 
burns, and that the way of the transgressor is hard. We 
lead our pupils to gain knowledge by trying things, and 
we call this the empirical process of teaching. The 
pupil learns by experience that ice is cold and that 
wrong-doing brings remorse. 

2. The rational process is the way we gain knowl- 
edge through inference. The universe is a unit. Laws 
express relations. We infer laws ; we begin with our 
individual experiences and ascend through inference to 
a universe. The child feels its way, but the man finds 
how things must be. 



TEACUING PROCESSES. 353 

The Empirical and the Rational must go together. — It is true 
that experience does not give first truths, but without experience 
we must remain ignorant of these truths. Insight into the essen- 
tial unity of the experimental and philosophical processes goes far 
toward reconciling warring philosophers. Take chemistry, the rep' 
resetitative empirical science ; even here the rational process con- 
ditions every step forward. 

Y. { ''^^^roces?^^ This process stands for unitizing our 
acquisitions. We generalize, we synthesize, we in- 
duct, we assimilate, we think into oneness our old and 
new experiences. Leading our pupils to thus assimilate 
and unitize their acquisitions is termed the a^^jjerceptive 
teaching process. The apperceptive process is the most 
comprehensive form of mental activity. It is the pro- 
cess of unifying mental data into related wholes. 

Apperception supplements the other Processes. — " Apperception in- 
cludes all of that activity of the self which identifies, recognizes, 
assimilates, and relates or connects the new in the object presented 
with what is old or known to us before, or felt to belong to us before. 
I am inclined to think that the term apperception, as I understand 
it, includes or explains that activity of the mind which we term 
' interest ' and ' lively interest.' For just think of it, why is a person 
interested in a subject? To feel an interest in a thing is to identify 
one's self with it. The object interests me because I think and feel 
it identical with me or mine. Is it not clear, therefore, that the very 
essence of * interest ' and ' lively interest ' is apperception ? Does not 
apperception, therefore, furnish us the supreme category for educa- 
tion? Education does not educate except so far as the pupil assimi- 
lates mental food which he takes. Not perception, as the followers 
of Pestalozzi proclaim loudly, but apperception, as the followers of 
Ilerbart announce, is to be the great word in educational psy- 
chology."* 

* W T. Harris. 



23 



354: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

CHAPTER XXX. 

TEACHING PERIODS. 

Human life, physiologically and psychologically, is 
divided into six periods — childhood, hoyhood, youth, 
young manhood, manhood, and old age. We think of 
the self as a child up to the tenth year ; as a hoy or 
girl from the tenth to the fourteenth year ; as a yotdh 
from the fourteenth to the eighteenth year ; as a young 
inan or young woman from the eighteenth to the 
twenty-fifth year ; as a man or woman from the twen- 
ty-fifth to the sixty-third year ; and as an aged man 
or aged woman from the sixty-third year to the end of 
life. 

Mankind have recognized childhood, boy-and-girl- 
hood, youth, and young manhood as the educational 
periods. The schools of the world are organized wath 
reference to these periods, and methods of teaching are 
adapted to these stages of growth. The self, it is true, 
growls right on as the tree grows, and the development 
is continuous. But the educational periods named have 
well-defined characteristics. Our schools and our school 
work are arranged to meet the wants of these stages of 
growth. 

I. The Kindergarten Period. — The self is an in/ant 
for six years. "We call this the kindergarten educa- 
tional period. During all the centuries the mother has 
been the kindergartner ; but during the twentieth and 
succeeding centuries trained kindergartners will share 
with the mother the training of the child from the 
third to the sixth year. The work initiated by Froebel, 



TEACHING PERIODS. 355 

now so rapidly spreading, will go on spreading until it 
fills the whole earth. 

The Kindergarten. — (See map of infant growth, page 342.) — From 
the third to the sixth year the child attends the kindergarten and 
through play learns to work. These are precious years, for " as the 
twig is bent the tree inclines." Healthy, vigorous, physical growth 
is primary. Happy childhood must be realized and right habits 
must be cherished. The child is led to form the acquaintance of the 
beautiful world. Helpful emotions are tenderly fostered and hurt- 
ful feelings are gently repressed. The child is kept pure and sweet. 
Its feeble powers develop slowly, healthfully, gracefully. 

II. The Primary Period. — The self is a child from 
the sixth to the tenth year. We call this the jprhnary 
school period. The chief business of the child is to 
grow and be happy ; but these are precious educa- 
tional years. The child's restless activities must be 
rooted into right habits. Its acquaintance with nature 
must be greatly extended, and it must begin the mastery 
of the book-world. 

The Primary, — (See map of child-growth, page 342, also 359.)— 
From the sixth to the tenth year the child attends the primary 
school. It now enters upon a larger and even happier life. In the 
kindergarten it could talk, but now it learns to read and write. 
The primary work of to-day in our best schools is a marvel of adap- 
tability and efficiency. Nothing is left undone to promote the phys- 
ical well-being of the child. Lines of kindergarten work are con- 
tinued. Gentle manners and good morals are woven into the warp 
and woof of child-life. While all its powers develop healthfully, it 
is kept pure and sweet and graceful. 

III. The Intermediate Period, — The self is a hoy or 
gvrl from the tenth to the fourteenth year. As this 
stage of growth comes between childhood and youth, 
we call it the intermediate educational period. During 



356 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

these precious but difficult years mental growth and 
physical growth are equally fostered. The infant and 
the child have grown and grown. The weak infant 
powers have become stronger and stronger. What was 
hard for the child is easy for the boy. The pupil now 
enters upon a larger and even happier life. The worlds 
of animal and plant hfe are explored with absorbing 
interest; the wonder-worlds of history and literature 
begin to open. Self-control is now of paramount im- 
portance. 

The Intermediate.— (See map of boy and girl-growth, pages 342 
and 365.)— During these difficult years the faithful interinediate 
teacher co-operates with the parents to promote the healthy and vig- 
orous physical, mental, and moral growth of the boys and girls. No 
Froebel has profoundly studied the growing self during this critical 
period. No master-educator has completely adapted intermediate 
work. This still remains the difficult and unsatisfactory educational 
period. The pupils are wayward and unstudious. Boys become 
rough and girls become giddy. A deeper insight into the growing 
self during this trying period, better arranged intermediate work, 
and better intermediate methods, are great educational needs. Too 
often our intermediate schools fail to carry forward efficiently and 
satisfactorily the work so well begun in our kindergarten and pri- 
mary schools. But a brighter day is dawning. 

The Ungraded School of the rural districts includes the primary 
and intermediate. The school is classified but not graded. One 
teacher does all the work. The course of study is the same as in the 
graded school. Elementary schools include all schools below the 
high-school. 

lY. High-School Period. — The self is a youth from 
the fourteenth to the eighteenth year. These precari- 
ous years usually fix for weal or woe the career for life. 
Sex is now an important factor in education. In child- 
hood sex is not considered, and the child is spoken of 



TEACHING PERIODS. 357 

as " it." Boys and girls mutually repel each other, and 
boys associate with boys and girls with girls. In youth 
the sexes mutually attract each other. Coeducation now 
becomes a vital question. May it be so managed as to 
work the highest good of both sexes ? It is firmly be- 
lieved that it may. The logic of results has in a large 
measure given an affirmative answer to the question, 
though separate education is supported by strong physi- 
ological and psychological arguments. 

The High-School. — (See map, page 342, and also page 367.) — The 
pupil now becomes a student, and knowledge becomes science. In 
the place of one teacher a faculty of specialists now conduct the 
work. The interests become wide and deep. Each power of the 
self is now highly active, and the youth is capable of great things. 
The high-school needs to be made as ubiquitous as our elementary 
schools, so as to place a high-school education within easy reach of 
every youth. The high-school is still the missing link in our edu- 
cational evolution. The course of study needs to be arranged with 
the utmost care, so as to best prepare the youth for life and for col- 
lege. 

Y. College and University Period. — The self is a 
yoimg man or young woman from the eighteenth to 
the twenty-fifth year. This is the college and university 
educational period. These are the years of destiny. 
The student is at his best. The highest educational ad- 
vantages are enjoyed and the highest stage of culture 
reached. The university, strictly, carries the highest 
culture over into the highest fields of achievement, and 
embraces special schools, such as law, medicine, divin- 
ity, pedagogy. The college period proper extends from 
the eighteenth to the twenty-second year, and the mini- 
ver sit y period from the twenty-second to the twenty- 
fifth year. 



368 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

Periods of Culture, not Tears.— Some develop earlier than others. 
Girls develop earlier than boys. Some advance much more rapidly 
than others. Then the conditions are more or less favorable. Evi- 
dently our school systems must be made exceedingly flexible. De- 
velopment and acquisitions, as well as years, must be considered. 



CHAPTEE XXXI. 

PRIMARY METHODS OF TEACHING. 

Teaching methods are lawful^ systematic^ and jper- 
sistent plans of teaching adapted to the several educa- 
tional periods. We think of teaching methods as Mn- 
dergarten methods, primary methods, intermediate 
methods, higJi-school methods, and college methods. As 
these have much in common, we study merely the dis- 
tinctive characteristics of each. Primary methods are 
teaching plans adapted to childhood. What is the 
child ? How does the child find out ? What plans of 
teaching tend to promote child-growth ? The primary 
teacher seeks satisfactory answers to these questions. 

The Past. — The present looks to the past for instruction and in- 
spiration. Each age has had its great teachers. From these gifted 
ones we have much to learn. The world's great teachers penetrated 
the mysteries of human nature and moved forward the dial of human 
progress. From these we may learn lessons of wisdom and gain in- 
spiration ; but from the " old schoolmaster " we have nothing to 
learn but to avoid his mistakes. Like the ancient mariner, he groped 
his way without chart or compass. Like his geography, his child 
was mapless. We look to the past for warniiigs as well as for in- 
struction and inspiration. 

I. Map of Childhood. — (See map of the mental pow- 
ers, page 2 ; map of child-growth, page 342 ; and map 



PRIMARY METHODS OF TEACHING. 



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360 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACniNG. 

of childhood, page 359.) — '^Know thyself'^ expressed 
the wisdom of the ;past. '^Know yourself and know 
the child " expresses the wisdom of the ][>resent. Froe- 
bel's rediscovery of childhood was his greatest work. 
Each primary teacher must make this discovery for 
herself. Go back to the scenes of your childhood 
" when fond recollection presents them to view." 
Live close to the living, loving, growing child. Ask 
the past and the present for light. Your maps of 
childhood and child-growth become replete with mean- 
ing. You feel a boundless interest in the child, for 
you see in it infinite possibilities. 

II. Primary Teaching Process. — (See Teaching Pro- 
cess^ Chapter XXIX, and Teaching Periods^ Chapter 
XXX.) — The child must proceed in specifi.c ways in 
order to acquire and grow. The processes we use in 
leading children in these ways are termed primary 
teaching processes. 

I. Objective Process; Subjective Process. 



Primary Teaching 
Processes. 



II. Analytic Process; Synthetic Process. 

III. Inductive Process; Deductive Process. 

IV. Empirical Process; Philosophical Process. 



V. Apperceptive Process. 



Explanations. — The child processes are pre-eminently objective 
and experimental; this is denoted by the three lines under these 
processes. The child makes crude analyses and syntheses; this is 
indicated by one line under these processes. The child begins to 
apperceive ; this is indicated by one line under the apperceptive 
process. The child induces, deduces, and philosophizes slightly ; 
this is indicated by the dotted lines under these processes. 



PRIMARY METHODS OF TEACHING. 361 

III, Primary Methods of Culture. — The musician 
so touclies the keys of the instrument as to produce 
sweet music. The primary teacher so touches the 
keys of child-nature as to occasion the glad activity 
of all the child-powers. Sweeter harmony than the 
music of the spheres is the joyous activity and sym- 
metrical development of childhood. As each stroke 
of the sculptor's chisel looks to the hringing out of 
the angel concealed in the marble, so each primary 
exercise looks to the harmonious development of child- 
capabilities. 

Primary Culture Lessons. — We can not educate abstractions. We 
can cultivate this rose and this grape. We ca7i cultivate our mem- 
ory and our reason. We cultivate our minds when we cultivate our 
several activities. In the previous chapters we have studied plans 
for developing the powers of the child : Sense-perception, page 53 ; 
Self-perception, 71 ; Memory, 114 ; Imagination, 133 ; Co7iception, 
178; Self-emotions, 233; Social-emotions, 243; Beauty-emotions, 
259; Conscience, 272; Attention, 290; Action, 317. The primary 
teacher will restudy and co-ordinate these lessons. 

lY. Primary Methods of teaching the Branches. — 

These include methods of teaching reading, language- 
lessons, science-lessons, information-lessons, arithmetic, 
vocal music, penmanship, drawing, manners, morals. 
Your methods are your plans for conducting the exer- 
cises. You are entitled to all you can gain from others, 
but you must create your own methods. You will read 
the choicest educational literature. You wall provide 
yourself with the best Manuals of Methods for teach- 
ing each subject. I count these inexpensive helps, 
products of our times, of the highest value. You will 
find in these the best things. You will spend precious 
hours observing the work of superior primary teachers. 



362 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

You will continually glean f resli snggestions from your 
educational journals. Each year you will find new in- 
spiration at some good summer normal institute. All 
these are merely suggestive heljDS. You must create 
your own plans of work. 

Primary Methods of teaching Reading, Arithmetic, etc. — Detailed 
methods of teaching the branches are considered out of place in a 
work of this kind. Some of our best works on pedagogy are thus 
cumbered. Separate manuals of methods prepared by experts are 
every way better. Here we seek insight into the mental economy, 
and into the laws and means and methods of promoting growth. 
We try to master the essentials. 



CHAPTEE XXXII. 

INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF TEACHING. 

These are plans of teaching adapted to boys and 
girls. In the primary, the w^ork for the most part is 
necessarily oral. In the intermediate, book and oral 
work are about equal. The intermediate teacher studies 
to incite the self -activity of her pupils. She seeks to 
lead them into studious habits and train them to think. 
All her methods look to preparing boys and girls for 
complete living. 

I. Map of Boyhood and Girlhood. — (See map of the 
mental powers, page 2; map of mental growth, page 
342 ; and' map of boyhood and girlhood, page 363.) — 
Know thoroughly your pupils. This is fundamental. 
Your own boyhood or girlhood is not remote. Surely 
you can live over again those marvelous years. Then 
you have lived very close to impulsive, wayward, prom- 



INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF TEACHING. 



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364 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

ising boys and girls. You have learned what yon 
could from others. You have gained a deep insight 
into their peculiarities. You now venture to repre- 
sent as best you can the intermediate stage of mental 
growth. The maps in the old geographies were very 
imperfect, but they were vastly better than no maps. 
Your map of boyhood and girlhood may be crude, 
but it will nevertheless prove most helpful to you. 
It is so much better than the vague, shadowy views 
of teachers who make no attempt to grasp the mental 
economy. 

II. Intermediate Teaching Processes. — (See Teaching 
Processes, Chapter XXIX, and Teaching Periods, 
Chapter XXX.) — Everything unfolds its meaning to 
its lover. Wisdom says, "/ love them that love meP 
You love the boys and girls, and they reveal to you 
their inmost selves You know their activities as the 
performer knows the keys of his instrument. Their 
predominant activities reveal to you the intermediate 
processes. 

I. O'bjective Process ; Subjective Process. 



II. Analytic Process; Synthetic Process. 

Intermediate ^ m. inductive Process; Deductive Process. 
TeacLing Processes. 

IV. Empirical Process; Philosophical Process. 



V. Apperceptive Process. 

The objective and empirical processes predominate 
in intermediate as in primary work. The analytic 
and synthetic processes are now prominent. It is not 
the exhaustive analysis and synthesis of later years, but 
the crude efforts of boys and girls. Tlie apperceptive 



INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF TEACHING. 3G5 

proeess is used more and more. The remaining pro- 
cesses are used moderately. 

Teaching Processes are Tests. — You visit the primary or interme- 
diate school ; you observe that the teaching processes are subjective 
and philosophical rather than objective and empirical. It becomes 
clear to you at a glance that the teacher is ignorant of child-nature 
and child-processes. You detect erroneous methods of teaching al- 
most as readily as you detect the mispronunciation of familiar 
words. Good teaching is as easily tested as good reading. 

III. Intermediate Methods of Culture. — The develop- 
ment of power is primary in education. The feeble 
infant powers must grow into the mighty powers of the 
philosopher. You have attentively studied intermedi- 
ate methods of promoting the growth of the several 
mental powers : Sense-Perception^ P^gG 55 ; Self -Per- 
ception, Yl ; Memory, 115; hnagination, 135; Con- 
ception, 1Y9 ; Judgment, 196 ; Reason, 207 ; Self-Emo- 
tions, 233 ; Social-Emotions, 213 ; Truth- Emotions, 
253; Beaxity-Emotions, 259; Conscience, 271:; Atten- 
tion, 290; Choice, 300; Action, 317. You are now 
able to survey the entire mental economy. You study 
to lead your pupils to so put forth effort as to develop 
harmoniously all their capabilities. 

lY. Intermediate Methods of teaching the Branches. 
— These are ways of leading our pupils to so put forth 
effort as to develop their capabilities by mastering the 
intermediate studies. Your methods must be your 
own. David could not tight in Saul's armor, nor can a 
teacher use efficiently another's methods. Gain every- 
thing possible from others, but make all your own. 
Procure the best manuals of intermediate methods of 
teaching reading, arithmetic, geography, and the other 



366 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

brandies. Spend days in intermediate schools taught 
by able teachers. Gather information and inspiration 
from the best educational works. After all, you must 
create your own methods. 



CHAPTEK XXXIIL 

HIGH-SCHOOL METHODS OF TEA'^HING. 

That we may do intelligent teaching we must un- 
derstand the plan of the subject taught as well as the 
plan of the mind. True teaching ^i^*^ the subject to the 
stage of development of the learner. This adaptation 
of studies to periods of mental growth is what is under- 
stood by methods of teaching. High-school methods 
bring together youthful minds and elementary science. 

" There is a method in the child and a method in the subject of 
study. A complete pedagogy brings these two elements into har- 
mony — makes them complementary. The method in the subject at 
any stage exactly fits a corresponding stage of development. The 
development in the subject must be made at all stages to fit the de- 
velopment of the learner. In this view of pedagogy the office of 
the teacher is magnified." * 

I. Map of Youth. — (See map of the mental powers, 
page 2; map of mental growth, page 342; and map 
of youth, page 36Y.) — From the fourteenth to the 
eighteenth year is a supremely interesting period of 
human life. Most of the intellectual powers act vigor- 
ously. The emotions are highly active. The will-pow- 
ers are might-forces. The youth is capable of great 

* Charles De Garmo, in Essentials of Method. 



HIGH-SCHOOL METHODS OF TEACHING. 



367 



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368 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

tliino's. The great activity of self-perception indicates 
that the time has come for the systematic study of the 
self-world. The high activity of imagination and of 
the thought-powers tell us that the time has come for 
the mastery of elementary science and elementary math- 
ematics and departments of history and hterature. But, 
dear teacher, I leave the applications to you. I must 
not presume to do for you what you can better do for 
yourself. Your youth comes vividly to mind. You 
associate most intimately with youths; as you love 
them, they reveal to you their inmost selves. Litera- 
ture is at its best when dealing with youth. In view 
of all, you will construct an original map of youth. 

II. High - School Teaching Processes. — (See High- 
School Period, Chapter XXX, and Teaching Processes, 
Chapter XXIX.) — In high-school work we use all the 
processes, as all the mental powers are highly active. 
It must be true that the growth is continuous, but boys 
and girls seem to become youths with a leap. 

I. Objective Process; Subjective Process. 



High-School 
Teaching Processes. 



II. Analytic Process ; Synthetic Process. 



III. Inductive Process; Deductive Process. 



IV. Empirical Process ; Philosophical Process. 



V. Apperceptive Process. 



Explanations. — Wide experiences have been accumulated, so that 
high-school pupils use the objective and empirical processes less and 
the subjective and philosophical processes more than during the 
previous periods. The analytic, synthetic, inductive, and deductive 
are now the dominant educational processes. Youths elaborate into 
higher forms their old and new experiences. The apperceptive pro- 



HIGH-SCHOOL METHODS OF TEACHING. 369 

cess enters very largely into the high-school work. You will ponder 
these suggestions, but from your own insight you will make your 
map of high- school teaching processes. 

III. High-School Methods of Culture. — The aim is in- 
creased energy. The purpose of each lesson is the de- 
velopment of greater power. "Well-directed effort de- 
velops the capabilities and prepares the student for 
greater achievements. In the previous chapters we 
have considered high-school methods of educating each 
mental power : Sense-Perception, page 56 ; Self-Per- 
cejption, 73 ; Necessary -Percejption, 83 ; Memory, 115 ; 
Imagination, 138 ; Conception, 181 ; Judgment, 196 ; 
Reason, 208 ; Egoistic Emotions, 236 ; Altruistic 
Emotions, 245 ; Truth-Emotions, 252 ; ^Esthetic Emo- 
tions, 260 ; Conscience, 276 ; Attention, 293 ; Choice, 
303; Action, 320. You will often go back to these 
elementary lessons, but you now contemplate the men- 
tal economy as a whole. You think of the self as com- 
manding all his powers in his efforts to achieve. You 
endeavor to so teach each lesson as to educate each 
activity. 

lY. High-School Methods of teaching the High-School 
Branches. — The youth is a student and a science-maker. 
Investigation and systemization characterize high-school 
methods. The youth now learns the art of searching 
investigation. Through the facts, laws are discovered. 
The youth learns to build science. Central truths are 
discerned, and around these are arranged systematically 
the laws and the facts. Each study becomes to the 
youth an embryo science. The vernacular, heretofore 
an art, now becomes also a science. The knowledge of 
the matter-world, heretofore miscellaneous, is now dif- 

24 



370 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 

ferentiated into tlie sciences. Eacli branch of study 
grows into a science. 

Mistakes in High-School Methods. — Intermediate work grows into 
high-school work, and high-school work grows into college work. 
There must be no breaks. But high-school methods are well-defined 
plans of work adapted to the high-school period. Two grievous 
mistakes are made: (1) Many teachers fail to note the growth of 
boys and girls into youths, and so they carry intermediate methods 
over into the high-schools. (3) Many teachers carry college meth- 
ods into the high-schools. They teach as they were taught in the 
colleges. These mistakes are fundamental and exceedingly hurtful, 

y. High-School Manuals of Methods.* — You will 
necessarily create your own methods. Still, you need 
all the help others can give you. I know some high- 
school teachers who do wretched work because of a 
foolish pride to be original. You may gain most valu- 
able help from books. Many high-school text-books are 
admirable teaching manuals. Besides these, we now 
have excellent hand-books prepared by able educators, 
full of helpful suggestions for teaching the several 
high-school branches. You will continue to study the 
best educational literature, you will continue to visit 
good high-schools, and you will continue to be an active 
worker in the associations of teachers. 

* Methods of teaching Algebra and Geometry, by J. M. Greenwood ; 
Methods of teaching History, by G. Stanley Hall, and similar works, are 
strongly commended. 



COLLEGE METHODS OF TEACHING. 371 

CHAPTEK XXXIY. 

COLLEGE METHODS OF TEACHING. 

College professors of the twentieth century will 
look to their methods as well as to their matter. They 
will be great teachers as well as proficient scholars. 
The average professor in the past cherished a deep con- 
tempt for methods. He counted it presumption to call 
education a science and teaching an art. But a marvel- 
ous revolution is going on. All the great universities 
and colleges, before the close of the century, will have 
established departments of pedagogy. Students who 
elect teaching will be educated for their profession. The 
college professors of the future will be as noted for their 
great skill in teaching as for their great learning. 

This work was planned to help kindergarten, primary, inter- 
mediate, and high-school teachers. The discussion of college work 
would be out of place here. But it is thought best to speak briefly 
of college methods from the standpoint of the elementary teacher. 
Even the kindergartner needs to understand in some degree the col- 
lege work. Every teacher should have a general knowledge of the 
educational work from the kindergarten to the university. 

I. Map of Early Manhood. — (See map of the mental 
powers, page 2 ; map of mental growth, 342 ; and map of 
early manhood, 3Y2.) — To trace from infancy to man- 
hood the growth of each soul-energy is more fascinat- 
ing than poetry or song. To the teacher it is meat and 
drink. From the eighteenth to the twenty-fifth year 
the self is a young man or young woman. IN^ow all the 
powers are highly active. The maps given are designed 
to assist you in your efforts to gain a deeper insight 



372 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



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COLLEGE METHODS OF TEACHING. 373 

into early manhood, and to help yon to construct for 
yourself maps truer to this educational period as you 
understand it. 

II. College Processes of Teaching. — (See Teaching 
Processes, Chapter XXIX, and Educational Periods, 
Chapter XXX.)— College work is philosophical work. 
Each science now becomes a philosophy. The objective 
and experimental processes are relatively less used, but 
the remaining processes are used more and more. The 
philosophic and apperceptive processes characterize col- 
lege methods. 

I. Objective Process; Sub jective Process . 



College Teaching 
Processes. 



II. Analytic Process ; Synthetic Process. 



III. Inductive Process; Dednctive Process. 



IV. Empirical Process; Philosophical Process . 
v. Apperceptive Process. 



You have studied as best you could the ways in 
which young men and young women proceed when 
they investigate and create. You will now make a 
map of the college processes as you understand them. 
The above presentation must be considered as suggestive 
but not as ultimate. 

III. College Methods of teaching the College Stndies. 
—College instructors in the near future will be profi- 
cient in the science of education and the art of teaching 
as well as in their specialties. Each college professor 
will be an educator. Antiquated and objectionable col- 
lege methods are slowly but surely giving place to 
wiser methods. Our great scholars are becoming great 
teachers. 



INDEX. 



Abstraction, 139, 161. 
Action, 286, 290, 321. 
Acts of perceiving, 39, 40. 
Actuals and ideals, 145. 
Esthetic emotions, 224, 237, 255. 
Altruistic emotions, 240. 
Analytic process, 351, 360, 364, 

368. 
Applied psychology, 9, 11, 13, 
324. 
.^pperception, 40, 89, 154, 218, 
'^ 348,353. 
Appetites, 229, 230, 266. 
Art of teaching, 14, 296, 343. 
Assimilation, 40, 60, 76, 88, 116, 

154, 184, 212, 348, 353. 
Association, 94, 98, 145. 
Attention, 286, 288,293, 304, 338, 

347. 
Attention and consciousness, 287, 

288, 294. 
Author's preface, xiv. 
Awareness, 26, 31, 63, 76. 
Axioms, 170, 250, 264. 

Beauty-emotions, 224, 237, 255. 
Book and oral work, 57, 59, 119, 

189. 
Books recommended, 41, 61, 79, 



120, 142, 185, 198, 263, 307, 

3?0, 370. 
Boyhood, 46, 67, 109, 129, 175, 

192, 204, 231, 241, 252, 257, 

269, 280, 297, 312, 324, 342, 

362. 
Brain and mind, 18, 19, 24, 33, 35, 

42, 43, 69, 99, 103, 158, 290, 324. 
Breaking the child's will, 320, 

331, 355. 
Build on the rock, 84. 

Causality, 166. 

Cells, 18.* 

Cerebrum, 18, 20, 24, 26, 99. 

Character-growing, 275, 309, 311, 

318, 333, 335. 
Characteristics of necessary - 

ideas, 37. 
Childhood, 46, 67, 109, 124, 129, 

174, 191, 203, 231, 240, 251, 

257, 269, 297, 312, 342, 355, 358. 
Choice, 285, 288, 309, 310, 334. 
Cognitive pyramid, 154. 
College period, 357, 371. 
Comparative powers, 157. 
Conception, 158, 171. 
Conceptions, not mental pictures, 

160, 183. 



376 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



Conceptive processes, 161. 
Concepts, 59, 159, 163, 173, 182, 

184. 
Conduct, 137, 139, 141, 146, 195, 

237, 253, 257, 259, 261, 268, 272, 

275, 279, 312, 317, 333, 349. 
Conscience, 264, 267, 272. 
Consciousness, 26, 31, 33, 63, 77, 

294. 
Conservation of mental energy, 

24, 69, 149, 174, 184, 212, 247, 

292, 330. 
Control over memories, 118. 
Control over phantasy, 123, 143. 
Cosmic emotions, 220, 224. 
Cramming, 217. 
Culture, not years, 358. 
Culture of conception, 173, 178, 

183. 
Culture of imagination, 128, 136. 
Culture of memory, 151. 
Culture of the emotions, 225, 

228, 240, 249, 255 
Culture of the perceptive powers, 

85. 
Culture of the representative 

powers, 143. 
Culture of the thought-powers, 

213. 
Culture of will, 293, 309, 321, 

333, 338. 
Culture-values, 50, 112, 132, 177, 

193, 205, 232, 325. 

Deductive process, 352. 
Deductive reasoning, 165, 169, 

352. 
Defining, 180, 182, 196. 
Denomination, 162. 
Desires, 236, 237, 290. 



Diagramming, 181. 
Disassociation, 122. 
Discriminating memory, 150. 
Doing educates, 228, 243, 245, 
261, 275, 279, 330, 336. 

Economy of the senses, 26. 
Editor's preface, ix. 
Education, 11, 13, 295, 335. 
Educational laws, 12, 48, 68, 110, 

i30, 175, 192, 204, 241, 257, 

298, 314, 345. 
Educational methods, 51, 71, 272, 

359, 363, 367, 372. 
Educational periods, 354. 
Educational treatment of phan- 
tasy, 122, 143. 
Educational values, 50, 70, 112, 

132, 177, 193, 205, 232, 258, 

271, 299, 313, 325. 
Educational waste, 247. 
Education of attention, 293, 295, 

305. 
Education of conception, 171. 
Education of emotions, 225, 228, 
Education of imagination, 125, 

145. 
Education of judgment, 187, 197. 
Education of memory, 105, 148, 

151. 
Education of necessary-percep 

tion, 80, 87. 
Education of reason, 200, 202. 

240, 249, 255, 264, 272. 
Education of self-perception, 63, 

87. 
Education of sense - perception, 

43, 61, 91. 
Education of will, 305, 311, 321, 

333, 335, 338. 



INDEX. 



377 



Effort, law of, 48. 

Emotions, 220, 222, 224, 293. 

Emotions, diagram of, 220. 

Emotions and habits, 226. 

Empirical process, 352. 

Errors in educating conception, 
184. 

Errors in educating conscious- 
ness, 76. 

Ethical culture, 225, 264, 266, 
272, 278. 

Evolution, 344. 

Examinations, 119. 

Executive powers, 292, 328. 

Experimental process, 86, 352. 

Faculties, 2, 5, 7, 144, 154, 188, 

220, 267, 284, 342. 
Faith and reason, 170, 201. 
Fancies, 100, 122. 
Fancy, 100, 122, 143. 
Feelings, 16, 76, 221. 
Focalizing effort, 295. 
Food and growth, 177. 
Forgetting, 116, 118. 
Freedom in willing, 333. 

Ganglia, 18, 292. 

Generalization, 161. 

General laws of mental growth, 

48, 68, 110, 130, 175, 192, 204, 

241, 257, 298, 314. 
General notions, 158, 159, 162, 

173, 183. 
Girlhood, 46, 67, 109, 129, 192, 

204, 241, 252, 257, 297, 310, 

324, 342, 355, 363. 
Good conscience, 270. 
Growing self, 10, 69, 203, 269, 

275, 295, 297. 



Growth of action, 324. 
Growth of attention, 297. 
Growth of choice, 312. 
Growth of conception, 175. 
Growth of consciousness, 67. 
Growth of emotion, 231, 240. 
Growth of imagination, 129. 
Growth of judgment, 191. 
Growth of memory, 109, 269. 
Growth of reason, 203. 
Growth of ' sense - perception, 

46. 
Growth of will, 297, 312. 
Growth of the mental powers, 

46, 67, 83, 109, 129, 175, 192, 

203, 240, 251, 257, 269, 297, 

312, 324, 342, 344. 

Habits, 86, 215, 226, 230, 248, 

260, 273, 275, 292, 296, 329, 

330, 337, 349. 
Hate, 21, 46. 
Head and heart, 225, 226, 245, 

250, 279. 
Helpful books, 41, 61, 79, 120, 

142, 185, 198, 263, 280, 307, 

320, 370. 
Helpful questions, 41, 61, 79, 

115, 120, 238, 263, 280, 307, 

320, 332. 
High ideals, 146, 147. 
High motives, 334. 
High -school methods, 56, 73, 

138, 181, 196, 236, 245, 253, 

260, 276, 303, 316, 328, 366. 
High-school period, 356. 
History of the growth of this 

volume, xiv. 
How to study self, 8, 42. 
Hygiene, 43, 58, 69, 158, 215. 



378 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



Ideals, 103, 104, 126, 141, 145, 234. 
Ideas, desires, choices, 290. 
Illusion, 124. 
Imagination, 102, 125, 144, 172, 

261. 
Immediate and mediate knowing, 

17, 157. 
Importance of educating, 45, 65, 

82, 107, 127, 173, 190, 202, 230, 

240, 250, 256, 268, 296, 311, 

323. 
Independent work, 181, 197, 202, 

235, 347. 
Induction, 165, 169, 351. 
Inductive process, 352. 
Instinct, 23. 
Intellect and conscience, 264, 

279. 
Intellectual pyramid, 154, 200. 
Intermediate methods, 55, 72, 

114, 135, 179, 196, 234, 244, 

253, 259, 274, 302, 315, 327, 

355, 362, 365. 
Intermediate culture-lessons, 365. 
Intermediate period, 355. 
Intuitions, 29, 31, 36, 85, 250, 

255, 264, 
Intuitive knowing, 17, 30, 34, 38, 

85, 170. 
Intuitive powers, 17, 34, 85. 

Judgment, 162, 187. 
Judgment and teaching, ^91. 
Judgments, 163, 167. 

Kindergarten methods, 52, 71, 
113, 133, 177, 194, 233, 243, 
253. 259, 272, 300, 315, 327, 
354. 

Kindergarten work, 53, 354. 



Kinds of knowing, 95, 157. 
Knowledge and emotion, 225. 
Knowledge of seK, 3, 65, 76. 

Laboratory work, 42. 
Language and thought, 217. 
Laws and conscience, 265, 270. 
Laws of ascent and descent, 69, 

176, 205. 
Laws of association, 94, 98. 
Laws of mental growth, 12, 47, 

68, 83, 110, 130, 175, 192, 204, 

231, 241, 252, 257, 270, 297, 

314, 326. 
Laws of methods, 48, 68, 176. 
Laws of teaching, 345. 
Limits of imagination, 103. 
Logic and psychology, 157. 
Love, 240, 245, 246, 364. 

Manhood, 68, 109, 130, 175, 192, 
204, 252, 257, 270, 313, 324, 372. 

Manliness, 235, 268. 

Manners and morals, 73, 243. 

Manual training, 56. 

Map of mental growth, 342. 

Maps of educational periods, 359, 
363, 367, 372. 

Mathematics, 194, 206. 

Matter and mind, 35. 

Means for educating, 49, 70, 83, 
112, 131, 177, 193, 205, 232, 
242, 252, 258, 271, 299, 313, 
325. 

Memories, 96, 106, 202. 

Memory, 96, 105, 144, 150, 173. 

Memory cerebration, 99. 

Memory laws, 97, 98. 

Men of action, 321, 323. 

Mental growth, 297, 312, 343. 



INDEX. 



370 



Mental economy, 43, 65, 81, 101, 
106, 122, 125, 164, 171, 188, 
200, 229, 249, 255, 264, 293, 
309, 322, 342. 

Mental phenomena, 64, 285 

Mental powers, 2, 284, 342. 

Mesmerism, 101. 

Methods of educating, 51, 71, 83, 
133, 178, 194, 207, 232, 258, 
272, 299, 304, 327, 359, 363, 
367, 372. 

Methods of educating emotions, 
232, 242, 252, 272. 

Methods of teaching, 358, 362, 
366, 371. 

Mind, 32, 35, 254, 284. 

Mistakes in education, 58, 76, 
119, 140, 184, 198, 210, 238, 
247, 252, 254, 261, 278, 306, 
318, 330, 356. 

Moral education, 268, 273, 279, 
333, 349. 

Motives, 289, 316, 324. 

Motoriura, 5, 19, 22. 

Native energies of self, 5, 7, 144, 

154, 267, 284, 322, 342, xi. 
Necessary-ideas, 36, 38, 82, 84. 
Necessary-intuition, 17, 34, 40, 

80, 82, 170. 
Necessary-perception, 17, 170. 
Necessary-realities, 34, 36, 81. 
Necessary-truths, 38, 82. 
Neglect of culture, 45, 108, 141, 

185, 238, 247, 261, 279, 318, 

330. 
Nerve-cells, 18, 19. 
Nine laws of teaching, 344. 

Objective process, 349, 350. 



Observing nature, 91. 
Oral and book work, 57. 
Organic sensation, 6, 27, 223. 
Organism, 18, 24. 

Pedagogy defined, 4. 
Perceptive-knowing, 38, 85. 
Perceptive powers, 17, 34, 38, 43, 

63, 80. 
Percepts, 29, 31, 36, 74, 85, 184. 
Perfection through law, 236, 261. 
Periods of growth, 47, 353. 
Person, 32, 33. 
Phantasy, 100, 122, 143. 
Physiological psychology, 42, 99, 

102, 291, 324, X. 
Plain living and high thinking, 

215. 
Primary-culture lessons, 361. 
Primary methods, 53, 71, 114, 

133, 178, 194, 233, 243, 253, 

259, 274, 300, 315, 327, 358, 

361. 
Processes in teaching, 349, 360, 

364, 368, 374. 
Programmes, 229, 328. 
Psychological mistakes, 60, 79. 
Psychological pyramid, 154. 
Psychological tree, 2. 
Psychology defined, 8, 38, 71, 

157. 
Punishment, 238, 278. 
Pure and applied psychology, 11. 
Put yourself in his place, 75. 

Questions, 41, 61, 79, 115, 120, 
238, 263, 280, 307, 320. 

Rational acts, 291, 353. 
Reason, 164, 170, 200, 353. 



380 



APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 



Reason and faith, 170. 

Reason-culture, 202. 

Reflex action, 23. 

Regulative truths, 38, 82, 166, 
170. 

Relations of mental powers, 43, 
65, 81, 101, 122, 125, 171, 188, 
200, 229, 249, 255, 264, 293, 

309, 322. 
Representative powers, 95, 143. 
Retaining and reproducing, 96, 

111. 

Rules for improving attention, 
305. 

Rules for improving conception, 
183. 

Rules for improving imagina- 
tion, 139. 

Rules for improving memory, 
117. 

Science of education, 13. 
Self-concentration, 286, 288, 293. 
Self-control, 227, 235, 268, 276, 

290, 316, 335. 
Self-determination, 285, 288, 290, 

310, 334. 

Self-efforts educate, 12, 48, 345. 
Self-emotions, 220, 223, 228. 
Self-evolution, 12, 67. 
Self-execution, 293, 310, 321. 
Self-knowledge, 3, 8, 18, 66, 73, 

76, 87, 346. 
Self -perception, 17, 30, 63, 73, 87. 
Self-percepts, 30, 64, 65, 73. 
Sensation, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 44, 

223. 
Sense-ideas, 28, 29, 41. 
Sense-perception, 17, 28, 43. 
Sensorium, 5, 18, 21, 25, 29. 



Special laws of mental growth, 

49, 69, 110, 131, 176, 192, 205, 

242, 252, 258, 298, 314. 
Special-sensations, 6, 29. 
Subject and object, 7, 73, 350. 
Subjective-process, 349, 350. 
Success, 328, 329, 330. 
Suggestions, 5, 56, 94, 98. 
Suggestive study-hints, 41, 61, 79, 

120, 238, 248, 263, 280, 320, 

332. 
Synthetic process, 350, 351. 

Tables of educational values, 50, 
112, 132, 177, 193, 206. 

Tasks, 254, 306. 

Taste, 255. 

Teaching, 156, 185, 214, 321, 343. 

Teaching and thinking, 185, 191, 
215, 296. 

Teaching ideals, 147. 

Teaching methods, 3, 14, 296, 
343, 348, 358. 

Teaching periods, 354. 

Teaching processes, 349. 

Terms defined, 1, 44, 63, 80, 105, 
126, 173, 189, 201, 230, 267, 
290, 294, 310, 334. 

Thinking, 156, 185, 214, 321. 

Thought-powers, 135, 157, 218. 

Thought processes and products, 
156, 213. 

Time to educate the various pow- 
ers, 46, 67, 83, 109, 129, 175, 
192, 203, 240, 251, 257, 297. 

Time to memorize, 145. 

Time to study self, 7. 

Training, 279. 

Truth, 237, 250, 251. 

Truth-emotions, 224, 249, 253. 



INDEX. 



381 



Unconscious cerebration, 24. 
Ungraded schools, 356. 
Unkindly emotions, 246. 

Values, 50, 70, 112, 132, 177, 193, 
205, 232, 242, 252, 256, 258, 
271, 299, 313, 325. 

Vicarious experiences, 75. 

Waste, 247. 

Ways to study self, 8, 42. 
When to study, 149. 
Why we should educate, 45, 65, 
82, 107, 127, 173, 190, 202, 230, 



240, 250, 254, 268, 272, 295, 

311, 323. 
Will, 6, 285, 334. 
Will and character, 321, 333, 337. 
Will and conscience, 266, 279, 

337. 
Will-culture, 293, 309, 321, 333, 

335, 338. 
Will-powers, 286. 
Work, 328, 336. 

Youth, 8, 46, 67, 109, 130, 175, 
192, 204, 252, 257, 269, 312, 
324, 357, 366. 



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